T.H. White, The Once and Future King - The Sword in the Stone

Part 1

• The Once and Future King contains four ‘books’ that retell account of Arthur’s life and death found in Malory’s original tale

  • White began to write his account shortly after Winchester Manuscript was found (1934)

  • White took title of his text from Arthur’s epitaph at end of Malory’s text

• Revises Malory’s text to present tale in terms relevant to 20th C. audience

  • Adds humor and irony, as well as references to history after middle ages

  • Depictions of characters and events become commentary on political and social issues of 20th C.

• White was influenced by Mark Twain’s novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (1889)

  • Twain’s time travel novel satirized use of Arthurian tales in 19th C. literature, arts, advertising and politics in present European nobility as true leaders of ‘civilization’

• T.H. Whites first version of the sword in the stone (1938) was shaped by WWI and developments in 1930s

• WWII and cold war shaped revised version that became Book 1 of the Once and Future King

• White was student in boarding school in UK during WWI and he became conscientious objector during WWII and moved to IReland, which remained neutral in war, just like Switzerland

• WWI had been very tragic in terms of numbers of lives lost and serious wounds, which many people believed were patriotic sacrifices

  • WWI included new weapons, such as poison gas and long-range cannonry

• Many people raised questions during WWI and afterwards about how war was run and what goals were achieved

• Idea that WWI was ‘war to end all wars’ became increasingly ironic as 1930s saw political conflict and military expansion lead to WWII

• Novel suggests it is account of events that led to composition of Malory’s tale

  • Last chapter, king Arthur meets boy named Tom from Newbold Revel

  • Arthur knights him, but orders him not to fight in battle against Mordred

  • Orders Tom to go home and tell world about ideal of Round Table

  • Instead of '“The End”, novel ends with word “The Beginning”

• White plays with concept of time

  • Sets Arthur’s life in 13th. to 15th C., instead of 5th or 6th

• Lack of traditional chronology embodied in Merlin, who can foretell future because he lives backwards in time, but also has job references from ancient Greece

• Text becomes puzzle that uses readers knowledge of past history and literature

• Nowvel plays games with chronological history, such as having medieval characters refers to Communists and quotes Shakespeare plays

• But sometimes narrator asserts that historical chronology matters

• White uses some plot and characters from Malory, but adds much greater detail

  • Sir Ector is Arthur’s foster-father, lord of Castle of Forest Sauvage, and freind to King Pellinore

  • Merlin becomes Arthur’s primary teacher during childhood

  • Kay is slightly older foster brother, proud of noble rank and military skills

  • Arthur (Wart) becomes boy who is curious, brave, loyal, and humble

    • Wanted desperately to become knight

    • Cares for people and animals

• Whites text integrates actual quotes from Malory’s narratives

  • Merlins reproof of Kay

  • Description of battle between King Pellinore and Sir Grummore Grummursum

  • Sir Ector’s conversation with Arthur

  • Final scene of Book I contains most extensive quotations from LMD, as White’s text “meets up” with Malory’s text

• White also adds new characters to Malory’s account of Arthur life

  • Sir Grummore Grummursum

  • Sir Ector’s Servants (Hob, Dog Boy, Serjeant-at-arms, and nurse)

  • Robin Wood and his associates, including Marian, who are Saxon rebels

  • Whole cast of animal characters, including Cavall

• Sword in the Stone focuses on Arthurs life before kingship

  • Ends with Malory’s take of Arthur proving himself rightful king of England by pulling sword out of anvil stone

  • Omits tales of Arthur’s conception: parents revealed by Merlin as Uther and Igraine in last chapter

• Sword in Stone focuses on ‘education of prince’; explains how arthur came to be able to draw sword from stone (not just Christian miracle)

• Opens with discussion of traditional education gives to Wart and Kay as boys in medieval knight’s household

  • Lessons in combat, hawking, hunting, and riding, along with some Latin, simple math, and science (use of astrolabe to locate stars)

• Text offers point of view of boy growing into teenager

  • Wart hates exclusion from Kay’s preparation to be knight; but that becomes part of Wart’s preparation to be king

  • Learns patience and humility, and has wider experience than knights had

• Entry of Merlin as tutor offers new dimension to Warts education

  • Adds lessons in political philosophy, natural science, and ethics

  • Educate Arthur in kingship without letting him know he will become king

• Tale’s focus on education of Arthur as child takes new approach to composing Arthurian tales (not just for adults in noble social class)

  • White’s narrative becomes indirect education for all readers

• Merlin tells Wart before first lesson, “You will see what it is to be a king”

• White’s text suggests that part of being good king involves being able to see the world from outside of one’s personal perspective

• Merlin’s magical lessons allow Wart to experience different points of view on leadership, community,m and relationship of human beings to nature

• Opposite of Kay’s assertion to Wart that ‘being different is wrong’

• First lesson allows Wart to experience power of absolute monarch

First magical lesson is Merlin’s response to Warts desire to swim in castle moat: Wart wishes he were a fish so he wouldn’t have to go to school

• Merlin uses “mirror language” to work his magic spell

• Readers see backward words

• Translates to: “Merlin’s compliments to Neptune and will he kindly accept this boy as a fish?”

• Part of lesson on new perspectives, like living backwards in time

• Reader’s experience of novel mirrors Wart’s experiences: Narrator tells reader, “Imagine yourself into the Wart’s position”

• Lessons as animals explore human nature and relationship to beasts

• Lessons also explore what makes government work well and what kinds of power leaders use in different societies

• Episode first presents moat fish in terms of ‘food chain’ but also stereotypes

  • Roach are ‘silly’

  • Perch are ‘brave’

  • Pike are ‘killers’, except as babies

• Does ‘kingship’ come from greatest physical size and strength?

  • Survival qualities are what help all species adapt to their environment

• Narrator presents ‘King of the Moat’ ironically

  • Calls pike an ‘absolute monarch’ and ‘emperor’, but adds “in these purlieus” (in this area)

    • Readers come to understand that pike is ‘big fish in a small pond’

• Not criticism of monarch of UK, since UK is constitutional monarchy, not absolute monarchy

• Narrator compares King of Moat to ‘Uncle Sam’

• UK had great power in world despite small size, but it could not win WWI or WWII without help from colonies and allies alike

• USA had grown into international power, and episode seems to ask how should great power be used

• The pike (Mr. P) argues that only physical power is real and says successful creatures use ‘love’ and ‘pleasure’ to win power over others

  • Argues that mind is not as powerful as body

• Yet hypnotic power of Pike’s shown to be as important as physical power

  • Pike almost gets close enough to swallow Wart, but Merlin saves him

• Warts natural reaction is dislike and horror

• Dr. Merlins “mission of mercy'“ to heal Mrs. Roach may seem like minor part of episode but offers contrast to Warts interview with King of Moat

  • Merlin uses his power of knowledge, body, and words to help others

• Warts lessons in the form of animals take place alongside episodes in which he relates to animals as human being

• Wart scurries like rabbit to avoid hunter while in forest to monitor Cully

• Kay thinks archery practice will be more fun if they shoot at moving targets, so he shoots at rabbits for first time

• White depicts hunting as something that takes skill to do well

• Narrative encourages readers to see scene from both human and animal perspectives, just as Wart experiences what hunted animals might feel and do

• But end of episode shows human beings not in total control of nature

  • Wart celebrates killing of rabbit by shooting arrow in air, but crow catches arrow in its beak and flies away with it

• Novel continues to explore whether human powers are civilized or bestial

• Narrator explains that ‘tilting and horsemanship’ were considered most important part of ‘gentlemen education’ in Arthur’s time: is this knighthood?

• Arthur yearns to become knight, but knows he can only be Kays squire

  • Wart wishes he had ‘proper’ mother and father so that he could become knight errant and challenge other knights to joust

• Merline argues that Norman knights are ‘games-mad’ because they treat battle as if it were a game

• Merline magically takes Arthur to observe King Pellinore challenge Sir Grummore Grummursome to a joust

• Description of battle parodies use of ‘medieval’ traditions by wealthy people in Europe and North America to depict war as noble

• Description of battle shows ambiguity between real battle and game

  • Knights can’t specify why they’re fighting, that it’s just ‘usual thing’

• Then begin to use language borrowed from Malory (but depicted here as ritual without true meaning)

  • Use name-hiding formulas (even though they know each other’s name)

  • Argue over ‘correct’ medieval language, but accuse each other of treason

• Tale interweaves serious depiction of battle and comic details

  • Narrator uses quotation from Malory to describe knights

  • Scene mixes medieval comparisons with modern comparisons: knights ‘thundering together like two runaway trams’ suggest they present modern danger

• Battle turns into argument about whether either knight cheated

• Scene blurs line between joust as a game and potential for real danger

  • Arthur asks Merlin ‘do you think they will kill each other’

• Ambiguity of language seems to be part of problem of understanding truth about what goals people should have

  • Should knight threaten to cut opponents head off if it’s just a game?

  • Does knight who asks for mercy or peace in battle lose his honor?

  • Does a knight who cheats to save his life lose his honor as well?

• Battle ends when both ,nights knock themselves unconscious against trees

  • Description emphasises sense of horses and senselessness of human beings

• Important to recognize how this scene situaties Arthur’s life in different period of history than we have seen thus far: during period after Norman Conquest in 1066

• Will have consequences from narratives depiction of many aspects of his life

• Arthur’s experience as fish is first in series of animal transformations in Merlins education of Arthur in kingship

• White borrows from literary traditions of exploring human nature and ethics through stories whose characters are animals (Aesop’s fables, Animal Farm)

  • Beast fables have often been used by people with less power to provide commentary on people with more power

  • Bestiaries also suggested parallels between animals and human beings’

• Arthurs experience as hawk in Sir Ector’s mews continues his lessons on different kinds of power in society and government, as well as human strengths and weaknesses

• Merlin tells him to sit down and ‘learn to be a human being’, so goal is clear

Part 2

• Warts lesson as hawk explores government by oligarchy (small, self-defined group whose main goal is to maintain their own power by excluding others)

• Merlin describes birds of prey in Sir Ector’s mews as like “order of knighthood”

• Lesson reflects claim by military leaders that soldiers maintain knightly ideals

  • Not commentary on all soldiers, but on military officers in Europe, who cam from families in nobility and upper class

  • Images of knights in recruitment posters in WWI and WWII

• Reflect concerns about military leadership during WWI and WWII

• Episode shows how leaders limit membership based on social prejudice

  • Only individuals from families in highest social ranks may apply for membership, so applicant need to explain ‘pedigree’

  • Merlin explains, “They know that none of the lower classes can get in’ and chapter shows language used includes references to racial and political groups considered unacceptable for membership

• Kay showed similar social prejudice when he claimed he knew better than hawk keeper Hob about how to handle Cully because Hob is ‘just a servant’

• Arthur wishes to become knight despite lack of noble parents, so he is eager to apply for admission

• When asked to identify himself, Arthur says he is a “Merlin of the Forest Sauvage” (leaders decide he is in ‘cadet’ of lower-ranked branch of noble family)

• Birds turn physical characteristics into evidence of ‘nobility’

• Episode plays within ‘hierarchy’ of birds of prey in terms of size and food chain in wild, similar to depiction of fish in moat

  • Arthur is Merlin Falcon

  • Leader is Peregrine Falcon

  • Female allowed to be honorary leaders, like Queen Elizabeth

• Episode uses irony in presentation of bird ‘governing’ while in captivity

  • Birds kept in cages when not hunting and kept hungry to insure hunting

  • Birds kept tethered and hooded, or they would escape to nature

• Cully caged separately while molting, because molting birds are vulnerable to predators

  • Problem illustrated earlier when Kay and Wart took Cully out to hunt

• Depicting birds of prey as knights suggests nobility and leadership

• But members of oligarchy see world as ongoing battle between themselves and all ‘others’

  • People who are not white, upper class, Christian, or capitalist

• Leaders of oligarchies use hierarchical titles and rituals to discourage individuality, encourage loyalty to group, and obedience to superiors

  • Qualities that can benefit larger community, but can also lock members with less power into subservience to corrupt leaders

• White’s episode demonstrates how hawk leaders appropriate religious languages to suggest their authority is divine and their goals are ‘holy’

  • Hawk ‘chaplain’ leads ‘hymn’ in ‘Ancient, not Modern’ form

  • Test of candidates knowledge called ‘catechism’

  • ‘Ordeal Hymn’ uses line from Latin prayer in Church of England and Roman Catholic religious services in honor of dead

• Hymns suggests that ‘militaristic’ view of life is based not on fighting to defend community, but on fear of death that becomes all consuming

• Final part of Wart’s membership test is ‘ordeal’ in which he must stand next to Colonel Cully, who rants against racial and political groups during scene, but also echoes Shakespeare’s scenes of madness

  • Narrator depicts Cully as dangerous because he fears being killed

• Wart knows fightin Cully is not solution: Wart’s ordeal tests both his ocurage and his strategic thinking to keep from being injured or killed by Cully

  • Wart distracts Cully by claiming cat is entering mews

• Wart escapes, but loses some feathers, as Cully moves fast when he sees that there was no cat

• Wart’s success leads other birds to sing ‘Triumph Song’ that praises him as ‘King of Merlins”

• After first singing of song, one hawk comments, “Mark my words, we shall have a regular king in that young candidate”

• Scene suggests that Arthur here passes his first test of true kingship by using power of his mind more than power of his body

• Arthur’s response to lesson as bird of prey comes at opening of next chapter and is contradictory: “What a horrible, grand crew”

  • Arthur’s view suggests he can see multiple perspectives on military leadership

• Significant that Arthur’s lesson as bird of prey is followed by physical battle between Arthur and Kay

• Kay seems to begin fight when he pinches Arthurs arm

  • Kays pinch may be playful or display of power

  • Kay poinches Wart because Wart won’t say where he was during the night

• Kay acts defensively after first attack on Arthur

• Both boys end up injured through combinations of their actions

  • Account describes Arthur’s injury as self inflicted (runs into Kays fist)

  • Arthur gives Kay bloody nose

• Account of battle between Arthur and Kay links it to earlier battles between different combinations of human beings and animals

  • Kay’s threat echoes words of Sir Grummore and King Pellinore

  • Kay twice calls Arthur beast during fight

  • Narrator says Arthur kicked like a salmon that has been hooked

  • Narrator says both boys looked like skinned rabbits

• Narrator’s comment that fight made boys friends again echoes Merlins comment about knights become friends when they “came to their senses”

• One of many ways novel explores how people would define “enemy” and “friend”

• Arthur says cause of fight was Kay’s jealousy of Arthurs lessons with Merlins

• Burt Arthur shows sympathy for Kay’s. point of view and asks Merlin to provide adventure that includes Kay

  • Arthur claims that people don’t understand Kay

• Merlin tries to explain that appearances can be deceiving and what Kay wants might not be good for him

• Arthur continues to ask Merlin for adventure he and Kay could have together, which shows loyalty to friend and willingness to work together

• Eventually agrees to send them both on Castle Chariot quest

• Lesson in kingship from this adventure seems to be that good government needs teamwork, even among people who do not think of each other as friends

  • Saxons must work with normas, and adults with children, in order to defeat common enemy

  • White is first to make Arthur Normal and also ally of Saxons

• Episode also suggests link between self-government and government of others

  • Depicts recognition of personal limitations as part of gaining true strength

• Castle Chariot’s name an drole taken in part from Malory’s Morte D’Arthur

  • Malory’s Castle Chariot belongs to Morgan le Fay

  • Place where se and other queens imprison Lancelot

  • Lancelot is rescued by woman (daughter of King Bagdemagus), rather than by other RT knight

• Adventure introduces Robin Hood tales into Arthurian literature

  • White renames character ‘Robin Wood’

  • Robin’s follower Little John depicts confusion of ‘Hood’ and ‘Wood’ as mistake of book writes, but also reflects different dialects in UK

• Robins true identity is controversial issue in novel and remain ambiguous

  • Is Robin Wood ‘Monarch of the Forest” or outlaw?

• Novel depicts him as leader of Anglo-Saxon resistance to rule of King Uther Pendragon

  • Uther depicted as Norman absolute monarch who has become tyrant over all inhabitants of British Isles

• Robin Wood and colleagues live in Forest Sauvage and consider it their forest, not Sir Ector’s or King Uther’s

• Robin and colleagues also in conflict with surviving people of ancient Britain

  • Britons who date from before Romans, Saxons, or Normans invaded

• White follows basic depiction of Robin as medieval leader on margins of society, who fight for just treatment of people who do not bold power

  • Suggests that noble class has abandoned its responsibility for upholding justice

• WHite may have seen link between Malory as ‘knight prisoner’ and depictions of Robin Hood as hero despite designation by some as outlaw

  • White may also have seen parallel with his own choice of exile during WWII as conscientious objector, considered crime by many in UK

• Robin Woods colleagues present potential unity of people from different social groups to fight injustice

  • Group includes ‘peasants’, member of CHristian clergy, and woman

  • Members join in planning action to rescue abducted Friar Tuck

  • Marian links Morgan with enchantress Circe

• Marian is first woman in tale Arthur admires as accomplished person

  • He expresses desire to marry woman like Marian, if he must mary

  • Arthur earlier referred tow ives as ‘stupid’ but is impressed by Marians military and leadership role Robin has given her

  • Assessment underscores Arthur’s limited experience of women and girls in this tale thus far

  • Depiction reflects Whites concern about limited recognition of women’s achievements

• Other new woman in episode is Morgan le Fay, with ambiguous identity

• Depicts people she leads as “fairies’

• Robin explains that Britons date from before Iron Age, so they fear iron weapons

  • Reflects historical association of Celts with metalwork

• But Robin Wood needs help of children in order to free Friar Tuck from Castle Chariot because only ‘innocent’ may enter fairy’s castle

• Kay and Arthur agree to help because Morgan le Fay’s other prisoners are from Sir Ector’s estate

  • Dog-Boy, Old Wat, and dog Cavall

• Rescue mission similar to Arthurian quest to liberate prisoners

• Arthur and Kay here learn about style of warfare that uses human ability to work with nature rather than against it

• White’s Castle Chariot reflects mixture of myths

  • Castle made entirely of food, which narrator compares to Irish myth

  • Parallel with Grail as source of food

  • Similar to witches house in German folk tales

• Linked to other ancient myths through griffin as guard

  • Considered symbol of divine power and guardian of treasure

  • Described in both Hebrew bible and Persian myth

• Sculpture of crow with arrow in its beak stop castle links episode with Arthur’s loss of arrow during celebration of Kay’s killing of rabbit

  • Flying crow caught arrow in its beak and flew away with it

  • Is the crow Morgan’s heraldic symbol? Does she travel in form of crow?

• Traditional strength sand warfare do not win

  • Children, rather than adults, battle enemy inside castle and hold metal objects rather than injuring or killing enemies

  • Then arrow shot by Kay, rather than adult, kills attacking griffin outside

• Adventure leads former enemies to become friends

  • Saxons and Normans, and Old Wat and Dog Boy (Whose nose Wat bit off after boy threw stone at him)

  • Arthur and Kay become closer friends, despite differences

• Arthur shown to be less of an archer than Kay, but more brave (gets closer to griffin) and more caring towards others than Kay

  • Kay asks to bring griffins head back to Sir Ector’s castle to show off kill

  • Arthur asks to bring Wat back to that Merlin can cure him of mental illness

• Adventure teaches Arthur about building teams and helping those in need

Part 3

• Art’s experience as worker ant presents lesson on fascism and totalitarianism 

• Episode parallels with satires by George Orwell and W.H. Auden 

  • Orwell and Auden were British democratic socialists who opposed regimes of Stalinist Soviet Union and Nazi Germany 

• Auden poem “To the Unknown Citizen” replaces honoring dead soldier who couldn't be identified with honoring a man for only being known by ID number 

• B;lancing individual freedom with community's well-being is difficult goal for governments to achieves 

• Democracy based on principle that governments need to protect all citizens equally as way to ensure success and safety of whole community

• But societies that repress individual identity may become less productive 

• Rise Of totalitarianism governments in 20th century showed that governments could use ideal of serving nation over individual’s rights to suppress just laws

• White’s depiction of the ant nest links it to Nazi Germany through echo of German national anthem in “Antland, Antland, Over All” but speedo generalizes political satire neyong specific governments 

• Art learns that total conformity of individual ants to government is “norm” enforces by prohibiting choices or questions

• Humor and political commentary of episode comes from comparisons between ant world and human world 

• Wart is upset that ants “did not treat him as a person” when they treat him like ant, but many aspects of ant world echo dehumanization of human world 

• Worker ants are known by number and letter code, suggesting role and value in serving needs of community, but dictated by government and unchangeable 

• “Beloved Leader” and “Ant the Father” are titles, rather than names, which give them power over ants

• White shows hoe leaders of ant nest control language to shape views of worker ants in ways that serve government goals 

• Leaders dictate values that workers can hole or express and have turned Bible passages into militaristic slogans to prepare ants for war 

• White’s novel examines relationship between language we use and how we think 

• Wart realizes he can’t find words in any language to express his thoughts or questions, since ant language has become limited to done/ not done 

• Human mind and language more capable of reflecting complexity 

• But human language and thought can be shaped by repetitive or simplistic formulas that interfere with thinking about or expressing complex issues

• The episode suggests that popular songs like ones ants are forced to hear….

• Chapter’s allusions to real popular songs from USA and UK explands political commentary beyond totalitarian regimes 

• References to rhymes June/ moon and love/ dove allude to “By lights of the silvery moon” which depicts love relationship as play scene (so just performance)

• “My Mammy” idealizes Alabama home and woman described with term often used for African American women, but song was written by white men from New York and depicts migration away from southern US in negative terms 

• Episode illustrate power of language and images in popular culture, advertising and politics to suggest that things may not be true

• Images of knighthood often used to suggest modern things reflect ideal of medieval nobility; but suggestion distracts from questions about true agendas of leaders and advertisers 

• Memorials to military service and posters used to inspire service in WWI and WWII often depicted leaders and war efforts in terms of taking role of medieval knights 

• Every aspect of life in ant nest is regulated by government, as in totalitarian regime 

• Reduction of language and thought to binary (don/ not done) makes only one interpretation of each act or thought possible 

  • Deviating from dictated action or thoughts defined as “insanity” and execution is punishment

• Repetition of government messages suppresses individual’s thoughts 

• Reference of “thought people” suggests government fear tactic and punishment for independent thought 

• Ants are led to accept going to war with other ant nest thought false logic, not true need or true threat by others 

• Leaders broadcast false claims, such as “we are starving” despite having food, to persuade ants they need to kill ants of Otherness

• Episode suggests self-defeating aspects of totalitarian culture, creating vulnerability, rather than strength

• Restriction of individual thought means ants do not have ca[acity to deal with unfamiliar situations 

• Conformity as ideal becomes paradox 

  • Denial of individual suggests devaluation, rather than value of human beings

• Episode challenges Kay’s argument in Ch.1 that being different was wrong 

• Totally regulated life in ant nest also kills joy and hope, and Arthur becomes “sickened explorer”

• Arthur feels relieved when Merlyn returned him to his own bed

The Tyranny of King Uther

• Next chapters suggest feudalism can also lead to tyranny 

• In feudalism, overlord gives vassal rule of estate and military support in exchange for loyal military and economic service 

• Description of Sir Ector’s lordship of his feudal estate suggests that feudalism can lead to benefits for all, but narrator also reveals potential for serious problems 

  • Workers on feudal estates are Saxons enslaved by Normans after conquest of England in 1066

    • “Villein” was Norman word for peasant but word became “villain” in modern english (reflecting view of nobility that peasants were not good people)

• Narrator compares workers to animals (view of Most Normans) but says Sir Ector valued his human workers more than his livestock 

• Says Sir Ectr also rewarded good workers with extra food 

• Narrator described feudalism as evil when bad people abused it, rather than inherently evil system 

  • Refers to Art as king destined to punish unjust feudal overlord 

• Discussion of good and evil feudal overlords sets discussion of Uther Pendragon as feudal overlord of kingdom (absolute monarch)

  • Normans brought french form of feudalism to England in 1066

• White makes Uther represent all Norman kings of England from WIlliam the Conqueror through King John 

  • Uther later shown in later chapter to live from 1-66 to 1216

• Novel presents Uther’s kingship from several perspectives, none of which seems positive

  • White characterizes Uther by effect of his actions on his subjects 

  • Readers see Uther through eyes of other characters or narrator, never directly 

• Novel presents Uther as disembodied voice of absolute authority 

  • feudalism gives king ultimate power over all property and people in kingdom 

  • Has right to demand material and military support from vassals and subjects have little recourse if he fails to give support and just treatment in return 

  • Uther not shown to have personal relationship with people or land, but communicates through letters and even hunts through bis ganets 

• Even Uther’s norman subjects seem only grudgingly loyal to their king 

• Saxon “partisans” are officially outlaws in Norman kingdom, but novel depicts them sympathetically, so their enemy (Uther) is undermined 

• Uther’s huntsman Twyti speaks Norman French hunting dogs, reminding readers of Uther’s norman identity, but also traditions that remain among UK upper class

• Episode boar hunt explores differences between good kingship and tyranny

  • Sir ector sonsiders annual hunt on his feudal estate to be “confounded piece of tyranny”

  • Readers knowledge of Uther’s theft of his vassal’s weife in earlier tale plays into White’s depiction of Uther as tyrant, rather than just king 

  • Merly’s education of Art about kingsip suggests that Merlyn hopes Art can be different from his biological father 

• Boar hunt offers white’s version of hunt for Twrch Trwyth in HCWO

  • King Art led his followers in battle against evil king turned into board, when boar and his followers came from ireland and attacked britain 

  • Cavall helped 

• White’s depiction of Uther make shim more lie Twrch Trwyth than Arthur 

• Novel shows relationship of humans and animals to be complex 

  • Medieval hunting was needed for food, but also a right claimed by nobility for themselves 

  • Novel depicts Norman knights as part-time hunters with less skills than Uther’s huntsman and Robin Wood, Saxon who lives in forest and hunts for food 

• Novel describes hunt in terms of human rituals, as well as dangerous battle 

• Episode also explores whether human hunting is “natural” or “noble” skills 

  • Pellinore does not enjoy hunting, despite being king 

  • Human beings use animals to help hunt, since they have important skills

• Teamwork of human beings and animals needed to defeat boar

  • Large dogs, not horses, used in hunt for boar 

  • Twyti depicts dog Beaumont as noble and valiant friend 

• Role of robin wood in hunt shows that human beings need to understand animals for successful hunt, but also understand value of other human beings 

  • Sir ector secretly invited robin to participate in hunt, even though robin officially considered outlaw by normans, so extor hides robin’s true identity

  • Sire ector recognizes robin’s greater skills and knowledge about hunting compared to his or that of fellow knights, depict villein/ villain statues 

  • Robin proves hunting expertise and good nature by killing boar when it attacks normans and their animals 

  • Twyti shows acceptance of robin as equal; partner in hunt when  he ha sorbin put beaumont down so he won’t suffer any longer after serious injury by boar 

• Hunt followed by King Pellinore’s capture of questing beast

  • Pellinore also sought questing beast in malory’s narrative 

  • Pellinore does not kill beast, but helps keep Beast form dying, which shows difference between hunt and quest 

    • Pellinore interprets beast’s condition as “pining away” for their interaction as questor and questee, which Pellinore has neglected chance to sleep in bed

    • Human beings and animal give each other meaning in tes tof skills (sport, rather than hunt)

• Chapters before boar hun suggest relationship of tyrant uther and knights may be like hunter and prey rather than hunting partners 

• Episode gives more significance to friendship between art and hunting dog cavall, who was the dog art helped save from castle chariot 

  • Cavall was not kind of dog used for hunting boar, but is dog art hugs during christmas celebration when he wants companionship 

  • White foregrounds friendship art and cavall as one of many formative relationships that prepare art for kingship 

• Perhaps Merlyn hopes that

Part 4

• Merlins education of Wart about kingship includes several episodes in which Merlin transforms him into different kinds of birds

• First, Merlin transforms Wart into hawk, so that he can experience community of Sir Ector’s hunting birds, who think of themselves as similar to knights

  • Lesson allowed Wart to learn about oligarchy or form of government in which a small group exercises control, especially for corrupt and selfish purposes, and only shares power with those who have similar values

  • Wart wants to be knight because he thinks knights fight evil, but Wart learns that he can resist evil by using intellect

• Warts desire to become wild bird begins with him admiring song of a thrush in spring

  • Similar to Parzival listening to birdsong in Wolfram von Eschenbach

• Leads to discussion of bird languages and community structures

  • Owl Archimedes joins Merlin and Wart for discussion of different theories of how birds communicate, with owl taking role as expert

  • Provides contrast with discussion of ant language and social order

  • Archimedes argues that bird languages can make very fine distinctions similar to those in human languages

  • Archimedes also explains that rooks have highly developed system of government, with parliaments and laws

  • Archimedes explains that pigeons have developed strategies for building strong communities and for escaping their predators

• Kay bursts in at end of chapter, announcing he has just killed a thrus with his arrow

  • Action again divides humans and birds into hunter and hunted relationship, rather than having things in common

• Arthurs adventures as wild bird differ from first bird experience among hawks kept by human beings as hunting birds

• First, Arthur becomes owl to learn how to fly, with Archimedes as instructor

• Also learns from owl that birds in wild only kill when they need to eat

• Arthur then transforms from owl to wild goose and also moves from forest to seacoast

  • At first, seacoast seems like dark wasteland

  • But very different in morning, when light tides, and birds return

• Arthur views geese as if they were “people like himself”

• Arthur also views geese as group with strong ‘comradeship’ that Arthur desires to join, and they are welcoming to him, even though he is a stranger

• Arthur learns that wild geese have individual names and families

  • Lyo-Lyok, Kee-kwa, and Uncle Onk

• Wild geese use terms similar to human military to describe their roles

  • This might suggest that geese have similarities to Sir Ector’s hawks

• But Arthur finds that wild geese have views about fighting and community that contrast greatly with views of hawks we met

• Goose communities depicted as having structure that is democratic, rather than using hierarchy that determines individuals power of choices

  • Goose laws and choices for leadership roles based on mutual agreement

  • Sentry responsibilities are shared among all members of goose community

    • Sentry role not based on gender, age, or rank of goose

• Wild geese also consider land shared territory; narrator explains that political boundaries are ‘imaginary lines on the earth’ from perspective of air

  • When novel came out, most people would not have flown in plane yet, but would probably have seen pictures of ground taken from planes

  • Audience would have known about boundary disputes in WWI and WWII

  • UK had also been involved in creating boundary between Republic of Ireland and UK territory of Northern Ireland in 1922, as well as division of Pakistan from India in 1947 and Israel from Palestine in 1948

• Novel also suggests that even ‘boundaries’ in nature are less significant than human beings tend to think

  • Human beings have crossed mountains, rivers, deserts, and oceans for millennia

• Lyo-Lyok doesnt understand concept of ‘war’ or even value fighting skills

  • Considers members of same species killing each other ‘murder’

• Lyo-Lyok thinks Arthur’s idea that fighting is ‘knightly’ is madness or at least immaturity

  • Argues that each species needs to protect itself against natural enemies

• Arthur argues ants fight other ants

• Lyo-Lyok argues ants and humans would need to stop fighting if they began flying

  • Readers would have found this ironic, since humans use flight for war

    • Kites and balloons used in war in China

    • Use of planes in warfare began in early 20th century in war between Italy and turkey and then in WWI

• Arthur considers Lyo-Lyok a kind teacher and admires wild geese as brave, noble, intelligent, and funny, with strong sense of social responsibility

• Narrator presents geese as doing some things better than humans

  • Points out that sailors of the air can cross North Sea in much less time than human sailors can, even in steamer boats

• Narrator also emphasizes intelligence of wild geese

  • Narrator presents tale of wild goose who learns to herd chickens into barn after watching farmer do it

  • Example provides ‘reverse’ of Robin Woods band using techniques for communication and quiet movement through forest learned from animals

• Readers might recall that study of animals has often helped human beings

  • Study of bird flight was crucial for developing designs of airplanes

• Town of birds Arthur visits with migrating geese offers parallels with tolerant interaction of different social groups of human beings in cities

• Many human cities became more multicultural during 20th century, because of migration of individuals and families

• Contact between ethnic groups through travel and immigration enhances European workforces, innovations, and cultural opportunities

• But social mobility also challenged older hierarchies of power, and gov. needed to figure out how to respond to social changes

• Whites novel shows that Arthur’s experience with wild geese becomes important influence on his ability to become successful king

• Arthur’s transformation into badger comes about when he feels ‘beastly’ because he is left out of preparations for Kays knighting ceremony

• Merlyn tells him that learning something new is only thing that never fails to improve things in life

• Merlyn seems to have had long-term relationship with Mr. Badger and knows bader will have something important to teach Arthur

• Badger might seem like opposite of wild geese

  • They live underground and are omnivores: in Britain they eat hedgehogs

  • They have very strong jaws, as well as limbs and claws

    • Known for their persistence

  • Badgers came to Britain in prehistoric times, like ancient Britons

    • Badger called ‘brock’ in medieval English, from ‘broch’ in Welsh

• Arthurs meeting with hedgehog as badger shows Arthur can act like tyrant

  • Arthur feels beastly and so teases smaller animal by threatening to eat him

  • Hedgehog speaks in rural English dialect and pleads with Arthur for mercy in terms of social rank

• Hedgehogs natural defensive action is successful against Arthurs ‘tryanny’ (like resistance of Saxons against Normans)

  • Hedgehog is able to roll up into ball so its spones protect ot from being eaten by larger animal

• Arthur’s attitude changes because of personal connection

  • Arthur discovers they have shared friendship with Merlyn and met as children at Merlyn’s home

• Scene suggests that human conflicts that seem ‘natural’ might be resolved by greater contact and understanding between people

• Mr Badger is natural hunter, but he has also become scholar studying fo rhis doctoral degree in philosophy

  • Merlyn calls Badger wisest creature he knwos, other than Archimedes

  • Badger praises Merlyns approach to education

• Badgers doctoral thesis explains how man became ‘master’ of animals

• His text suggets that human mastery over animals was gift from Creator as reward for humility and acceptance of vulnerability

  • Parable depicts all embryos being alike at creation

  • Creators riddle test for embryos teaches that all creatures have limitations

  • Creator tells embryos that each species may ask for a special skill or quality as gift that will help species protect itself and survive

• Parable of Embryos revises creation accounts in Genesis in several ways

  • Genesis presents human beings as made in God’s image

• In Genesis, God gives human beings made rule over animals by divine command

• But human rue does not include killing animals, even for food

  • God says to human beings, “I give you every seed-bearing plant on the fact of the whole earth and every tree that has every fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food”

  • God says same thing to animals, so they should not kill each other

• Arthur and Badger discuss conflict and community for animals and human beings

  • When Arthur claims man is ‘king’ of animals, Badger wonders whether man is king or tyrant

  • Badger also claims that human beings are only species that makes war on its own members

  • Arthur claims that ants fight with each other but Badger corrects him

    • Badgert explains that only five kinds of ants fight other ants, so rare

  • Badger also explains that some groups of human beings do not fight over land boundaries

• Arthur continues to argue that fighting by knights is noble

  • So badgers asks Arthur if he liked ants or wild geese best

    • Chapter ends without Arthurs answer

    • But readers know that Arthur liked wild geese much better than ants

• Badgers parable echoes part of Genesis that is studied in Jewish, Muslim, and Christian faith, but differences in Badgers version might send readers back to Genesis to examine it more closely

• Whites use of parable to teach about government is based on Greek and Roman political philosophy

• Christian bible also shows Christ using parables to teach religious lessons

• Before Merlin turns Arthur into a badger, Merlin tells Arthur that this will be his final animal transformation as Merlyns student

• Readers therefore understand that this will be Arthur’s final lesson in his preparation to become king

• Readers may wonder if Arthur has learned how to be good king, not tyrant, and ask questions before fighting like Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Arthur