Knowt
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Key Concepts:
Space is the geometric surface of the Earth
Objects on the Earth’s spatial surface are defined by their location and are separated by some degree of distance from other things
Activity space is referred to as the area wherein activity occurs on a daily basis
Place is an area of bounded space of some human importance
A place-name, or more technically a toponym is assigned to a location when human importance is recognized
Regions are a type of place, and there are other categories of places, such as urban places, places of work, resource locations, and transportation nodes
Attributes of a place change over time
The concept of sequent occupancy is considered over a long term: in other words, the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place’s history
There are several different historical layers that contribute to a place-specific culture, society, local politics, and economy
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to the Earth as a whole
Map scale describes the ratio of distance on a map to distance in the real world in absolute terms
Relative scale, or scale of analysis refers to the level of aggregation, or in other words, the level at which you group things together for examination.
Scales can range from local to city and state, from regional to national to continental, or to the international and global scales
Regions are categorized into three groups: formal, functional, and vernacular
Formal regions are areas of bounded space that possess some homogeneous characteristic or uniformity
A homogeneous characteristic can be a common language
Regional boundaries differ based on the type of region.
Culture regions tend to have fuzzy borders
Political regions boundaries are finite and well-defined
Environmental region boundaries are transitional and measurable
The environmental transition zone between two bioregions is known as an ecotone
Functional regions or nodal regions, are areas that have a central place, or node, that is a focus or point of origin that expresses some practical purpose
Market areas are a type of functional region
Since outlet malls are often placed far apart, there will also be a larger area of influence for the mall that will have shoppers traveling from longer distances
An intervening opportunity is an attraction at a shorter distance that takes precedence over an attraction that is farther away.
Vernacular regions are based upon the perception or collective mental map of the region’s residents
The overall concept can vary within the region due to personal or group variations
Location is considered in both absolute and relative terms
Absolute location defines a point or place on the map using coordinates such as latitude and longitude.
The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and runs through Great Britain because the means to accurately calculate longitude at sea was developed by the British Royal Navy.
The equator is 0° latitude. The North and South Poles are 90° latitude.
Time Zones are divided up into 15-degree-wide longitudinal zones around the world with some exceptions. This is because 360° divided by 24 hours a day equals 15°.
Relative location, by contrast, refers to the location of a place compared to a known place or geographic feature.
Site and Situation are locational concepts that work together
Site refers to the physical characteristics of a place
Situation refers to the place’s interrelatedness with other places
Distance is considered in absolute and relative terms
Linear absolute distance is the distance between two places as measured in linear units such as miles or kilometers
The concept of distance decay and Tobler’s Law is used to explain relative distance.
Distance decay (gravity) means that the farther away different places are from a place of origin, the less likely interaction will be with the original place
Tobler’s law states that all places are interrelated, but closer places are more related than farther ones.
Friction of distance is the length of distance that becomes a factor that inhibits the interaction between two points.
Space-Time Compression is decreased time and relative distance between places
Technology like modes of transportation or the Internet can reduce the relative distance between places
Human-Environmental Transportation is the effect that humans have on their environment, and vice versa
Spatial Interactions
Central Places are any node of human activity and are most often the centers of economic exchange.
Central place theory was developed in the 1930s by the German geographer Walter Christaller
city location and the level of urban economic exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagonal market areas, which overlapped at different scales
Core and Periphery relationships are displayed by different regional, cultural, economic, political, and environmental phenomena and human activities
CBD (central business district) is the core of the urban landscape, a country’s capital is the core of its political landscape.
the core does not have to be exactly in the center of the peripheral region
Pattern
A cluster is when things are grouped together on the Earth’s surface
Agglomeration is when clustering occurs purposefully around a central point or a economic growth pole
A random pattern is when there is no rhyme or reason to the distribution of a spatial phenomenon
Objects that are normally ordered but appear dispersed are scattered
If it is a straight line, the pattern is linear
If it is a wavy line, the pattern is sinous
Land survey patterns have an effect on the property lines and political boundaries of states and provinces.
Until the 1830s, land surveys used natural landscape features to divide land on a system of metes and bounds
A rectilinear township and range survey system based upon lines of latitude and longitude
Long-lot patterns have a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a very long lot shape behind.
Density
Arithmetic density is most often calculated as the number of things per square unit of distance.
Physiologic density measures the number of people per square unit of arable land, meaning land that either is actively farmed or has the potential to be
Agricultural density refers only to the number of farmers per square unit of arable land
Diffusion Patterns
There are a number of different ways and patterns in which human phenomena diffuse spatially, or spread across the Earth’s surface.
A hearth is the point of origin or place of innovation
Expansion diffusion pattern originates in a central place and then expands outward in all directions to other locations.
Hierarchical diffusion originates in a first-order location and then moves down to second-order locations and from each of these to subordinate locations at increasingly local scales
Contagious diffusion begins at a point of origin and then moves outward to nearby locations, especially those on adjoining transportation lines
A stimulus diffusion pattern is a general or underlying principle that diffuses and then stimulates the creation of new products or ideas
Relocation diffusion pattern begins at a point of origin and then crosses a significant physical barrier, such as an ocean, a mountain range, or a desert, and then relocates on the other side
Geographic Tools
Scientific maps are the results of spatial analysis—the mathematical analysis of one or more quantitative geographic patterns
Types of Maps
Topographic maps show the contour lines of elevation, as well as the urban and vegetation surface with road, building, river, and other natural landscape features
Thematic maps express a particular subject and does not show land forms for other features.
Choropleth maps is a thematic map that expresses the geographic variability of a particular theme using color variations.
Isoline maps calculate data values between points across a variable surface.
Dot density maps use dots to express the volume and density of a particular geographic feature.
Flow-line maps use lines of varying thickness to show the direction and volume of a particular geographic movement pattern.
Cartograms use simplified geometries to represent real-world places.
Mental map: the cognitive image of landscape in the human mind
Map scale is the “absolute” form of the scale concept.
Linear map scale expresses distance on the map surface.
The ratio scale of the map shows the mathematical relationship between the distance on the map compared to the real distance on the Earth’s surface.
A large-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively large real number
A small-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively very small real number
Map Scale | 1:50,000 | 1:1,000,000 |
|---|---|---|
Ratio | 1/50,000 | 1/1,000,000 |
Scale Type | Large Scale | Small Scale |
Area Covered | Small Area | Large Area |
Level of Detail | High Detail | Low Detail |
Purpose | City | State or Province |
Projections
Each given projection creates different levels of accuracy in terms of size and shape distortion for different parts of the Earth.
accuracy is based upon two concepts: area preservation and shape preservation
Equal-area projections attempt to maintain the relative spatial science and the areas on the map.
distortion of the actual shape of polygons
Conformal projections attempt to maintain the shape of polygons on the map.
distortion of the relative area from one part of the map to the other
Robinson projection and the Goode’s homolosine projection balance area and form, sacrificing a bit of both to create a more visually practical representation of the Earth’s surface.
MODELS
A model is an abstract generalization of real-world geographies that share a common pattern
Spatial models attempt to show the commonalities in pattern among similar landscapes
Urban models try to show how different cities have similar spatial relationships and economic or social structures**.**
Demographic transition models are non-spatial models that use population data to construct a general model of the dynamic growth in national scale populations without reference to space.
A gravity model is a mathematical model that is used in a number of different types of spatial analysis
used to calculate transportation flow between two points, determine the area of influence of a city’s businesses, and estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place
Location1 Population x Location2
Why Are Models Used?
Models are a way to picture geographical patterns that are not normally visible to the human eye and answer theoretical questions
The concentric zone model can be modified to create a graph showing the cost-to-distance relationship in urban real estate prices.
Geographic Technology
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) became practical with the onset of the desktop computer in the 1970s.
incorporate one or more data layers in a computer program capable of spatial analysis and mapping.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) utilizes a worldwide network of satellites, which emit a measurable radio signal
Aerial photography and satellite-based remote sensing make up a large amount of the geographic and GIS data used today
Aerial photographs are images of the Earth from an aircraft, printed on film, but digital camera usage is on the increase
Remote-sensing satellites use a computerized scanner to record data from the Earth’s surface
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Key Concepts:
Space is the geometric surface of the Earth
Objects on the Earth’s spatial surface are defined by their location and are separated by some degree of distance from other things
Activity space is referred to as the area wherein activity occurs on a daily basis
Place is an area of bounded space of some human importance
A place-name, or more technically a toponym is assigned to a location when human importance is recognized
Regions are a type of place, and there are other categories of places, such as urban places, places of work, resource locations, and transportation nodes
Attributes of a place change over time
The concept of sequent occupancy is considered over a long term: in other words, the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place’s history
There are several different historical layers that contribute to a place-specific culture, society, local politics, and economy
Scale is the relationship of an object or place to the Earth as a whole
Map scale describes the ratio of distance on a map to distance in the real world in absolute terms
Relative scale, or scale of analysis refers to the level of aggregation, or in other words, the level at which you group things together for examination.
Scales can range from local to city and state, from regional to national to continental, or to the international and global scales
Regions are categorized into three groups: formal, functional, and vernacular
Formal regions are areas of bounded space that possess some homogeneous characteristic or uniformity
A homogeneous characteristic can be a common language
Regional boundaries differ based on the type of region.
Culture regions tend to have fuzzy borders
Political regions boundaries are finite and well-defined
Environmental region boundaries are transitional and measurable
The environmental transition zone between two bioregions is known as an ecotone
Functional regions or nodal regions, are areas that have a central place, or node, that is a focus or point of origin that expresses some practical purpose
Market areas are a type of functional region
Since outlet malls are often placed far apart, there will also be a larger area of influence for the mall that will have shoppers traveling from longer distances
An intervening opportunity is an attraction at a shorter distance that takes precedence over an attraction that is farther away.
Vernacular regions are based upon the perception or collective mental map of the region’s residents
The overall concept can vary within the region due to personal or group variations
Location is considered in both absolute and relative terms
Absolute location defines a point or place on the map using coordinates such as latitude and longitude.
The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and runs through Great Britain because the means to accurately calculate longitude at sea was developed by the British Royal Navy.
The equator is 0° latitude. The North and South Poles are 90° latitude.
Time Zones are divided up into 15-degree-wide longitudinal zones around the world with some exceptions. This is because 360° divided by 24 hours a day equals 15°.
Relative location, by contrast, refers to the location of a place compared to a known place or geographic feature.
Site and Situation are locational concepts that work together
Site refers to the physical characteristics of a place
Situation refers to the place’s interrelatedness with other places
Distance is considered in absolute and relative terms
Linear absolute distance is the distance between two places as measured in linear units such as miles or kilometers
The concept of distance decay and Tobler’s Law is used to explain relative distance.
Distance decay (gravity) means that the farther away different places are from a place of origin, the less likely interaction will be with the original place
Tobler’s law states that all places are interrelated, but closer places are more related than farther ones.
Friction of distance is the length of distance that becomes a factor that inhibits the interaction between two points.
Space-Time Compression is decreased time and relative distance between places
Technology like modes of transportation or the Internet can reduce the relative distance between places
Human-Environmental Transportation is the effect that humans have on their environment, and vice versa
Spatial Interactions
Central Places are any node of human activity and are most often the centers of economic exchange.
Central place theory was developed in the 1930s by the German geographer Walter Christaller
city location and the level of urban economic exchange could be analyzed using central places within hexagonal market areas, which overlapped at different scales
Core and Periphery relationships are displayed by different regional, cultural, economic, political, and environmental phenomena and human activities
CBD (central business district) is the core of the urban landscape, a country’s capital is the core of its political landscape.
the core does not have to be exactly in the center of the peripheral region
Pattern
A cluster is when things are grouped together on the Earth’s surface
Agglomeration is when clustering occurs purposefully around a central point or a economic growth pole
A random pattern is when there is no rhyme or reason to the distribution of a spatial phenomenon
Objects that are normally ordered but appear dispersed are scattered
If it is a straight line, the pattern is linear
If it is a wavy line, the pattern is sinous
Land survey patterns have an effect on the property lines and political boundaries of states and provinces.
Until the 1830s, land surveys used natural landscape features to divide land on a system of metes and bounds
A rectilinear township and range survey system based upon lines of latitude and longitude
Long-lot patterns have a narrow frontage along a road or waterway with a very long lot shape behind.
Density
Arithmetic density is most often calculated as the number of things per square unit of distance.
Physiologic density measures the number of people per square unit of arable land, meaning land that either is actively farmed or has the potential to be
Agricultural density refers only to the number of farmers per square unit of arable land
Diffusion Patterns
There are a number of different ways and patterns in which human phenomena diffuse spatially, or spread across the Earth’s surface.
A hearth is the point of origin or place of innovation
Expansion diffusion pattern originates in a central place and then expands outward in all directions to other locations.
Hierarchical diffusion originates in a first-order location and then moves down to second-order locations and from each of these to subordinate locations at increasingly local scales
Contagious diffusion begins at a point of origin and then moves outward to nearby locations, especially those on adjoining transportation lines
A stimulus diffusion pattern is a general or underlying principle that diffuses and then stimulates the creation of new products or ideas
Relocation diffusion pattern begins at a point of origin and then crosses a significant physical barrier, such as an ocean, a mountain range, or a desert, and then relocates on the other side
Geographic Tools
Scientific maps are the results of spatial analysis—the mathematical analysis of one or more quantitative geographic patterns
Types of Maps
Topographic maps show the contour lines of elevation, as well as the urban and vegetation surface with road, building, river, and other natural landscape features
Thematic maps express a particular subject and does not show land forms for other features.
Choropleth maps is a thematic map that expresses the geographic variability of a particular theme using color variations.
Isoline maps calculate data values between points across a variable surface.
Dot density maps use dots to express the volume and density of a particular geographic feature.
Flow-line maps use lines of varying thickness to show the direction and volume of a particular geographic movement pattern.
Cartograms use simplified geometries to represent real-world places.
Mental map: the cognitive image of landscape in the human mind
Map scale is the “absolute” form of the scale concept.
Linear map scale expresses distance on the map surface.
The ratio scale of the map shows the mathematical relationship between the distance on the map compared to the real distance on the Earth’s surface.
A large-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively large real number
A small-scale map is one with a ratio that is a comparatively very small real number
Map Scale | 1:50,000 | 1:1,000,000 |
|---|---|---|
Ratio | 1/50,000 | 1/1,000,000 |
Scale Type | Large Scale | Small Scale |
Area Covered | Small Area | Large Area |
Level of Detail | High Detail | Low Detail |
Purpose | City | State or Province |
Projections
Each given projection creates different levels of accuracy in terms of size and shape distortion for different parts of the Earth.
accuracy is based upon two concepts: area preservation and shape preservation
Equal-area projections attempt to maintain the relative spatial science and the areas on the map.
distortion of the actual shape of polygons
Conformal projections attempt to maintain the shape of polygons on the map.
distortion of the relative area from one part of the map to the other
Robinson projection and the Goode’s homolosine projection balance area and form, sacrificing a bit of both to create a more visually practical representation of the Earth’s surface.
MODELS
A model is an abstract generalization of real-world geographies that share a common pattern
Spatial models attempt to show the commonalities in pattern among similar landscapes
Urban models try to show how different cities have similar spatial relationships and economic or social structures**.**
Demographic transition models are non-spatial models that use population data to construct a general model of the dynamic growth in national scale populations without reference to space.
A gravity model is a mathematical model that is used in a number of different types of spatial analysis
used to calculate transportation flow between two points, determine the area of influence of a city’s businesses, and estimate the flow of migrants to a particular place
Location1 Population x Location2
Why Are Models Used?
Models are a way to picture geographical patterns that are not normally visible to the human eye and answer theoretical questions
The concentric zone model can be modified to create a graph showing the cost-to-distance relationship in urban real estate prices.
Geographic Technology
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) became practical with the onset of the desktop computer in the 1970s.
incorporate one or more data layers in a computer program capable of spatial analysis and mapping.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) utilizes a worldwide network of satellites, which emit a measurable radio signal
Aerial photography and satellite-based remote sensing make up a large amount of the geographic and GIS data used today
Aerial photographs are images of the Earth from an aircraft, printed on film, but digital camera usage is on the increase
Remote-sensing satellites use a computerized scanner to record data from the Earth’s surface