Study guide

Philosophy of Religion: Key Questions and Concepts

I. Descartes, "2nd Meditation"

A. Difference Between Materialism and Dualism

• Materialism: Only physical matter exists.

• Dualism: Both material (body) and immaterial (mind) substances exist.

B. How Descartes Knows He Exists

• Phrase: "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) emphasizes self-awareness.

• Actions of doubting and understanding affirm his existence as a conscious being.

C. Wax Argument

• Demonstrates that physical properties change while our understanding remains, establishing the mind comprehends better than the body.

II. Ryle, "The Ghost in the Machine"

A. Category Mistake

• Ryle argues that mind is not separate from the body, challenging dualism.

III. Taylor, "Body and Soul"

A. Reasoning Leading to Dualism

• Claims a logical inference about separable identity leads to dualism.

B. Better Reasoning

• Advocates for a more integrated approach emphasizing unity over separation.

IV. Nagel, "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"

A. Nagel's Argument

• Discusses consciousness; states it cannot be fully understood even with physical basis.

V. Paley, "Natural Theology"

A. Argument for God's Existence

• Design argument asserts complexity in nature implies an intelligent designer (God).

VI. Swinburne, "Why God Allows Evil"

A. Goods Outweighing Evil

• Moral growth, free will, and appreciation of good.

B. Natural Evil in Relation to Free Will

• Can lead to moral choices and personal growth.

VII. Pascal's Wager

A. Explanation

• Belief in God as a rational bet; belief leads to eternal happiness; minimal loss if not true.

B. Blackburn's Criticism

• Critiques it for being overly simplistic and self-interested.

C. Zagzebski's Defense

• Genuine faith must be behind belief rather than just calculated outcomes.

VIII. Scriven, "Faith and Reason"

A. Critique of Faith

• Argues faith lacks the justificatory power that reason provides.

IX. McKim, "The Hiddenness of God"

A. Problems Stemming from God’s Hiddenness

• Non-belief due to God's inaccessibility causes challenges in faith.

X. Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion

A. Objections by Philo

• Critiques the analogy of human-made items and the universe.

B. Points on Argument from Evil

• Presence of evil challenges belief in a fully benevolent deity.

XI. Stump, "The Desires of the Heart"

A. Meaning of "Desires of the Heart"

• Deep emotional and spiritual yearnings applied to the problem of evil.

XII. Adams, "The Problem of Hell"

A. Problem of Hell

• Questions how an all-good God permits eternal suffering.

XIII. Minas, "God and Forgiveness"

A. Position on God and Forgiveness

• God's nature exemplifies true forgiveness.

XIV. Cahn, "God and Morality"

A. Belief in God and Murder

• Claims divine existence does not define moral actions.

B. Ten Commandments and Morality

• Moral rightness exists prior to divine commands.

XV. Analytical Questions

A. Cosmological Argument and Objection

• Argument: Everything has a cause; first cause is God.

• Objection: Why doesn't the first cause need a cause?

B. Ontological Argument and Critique

• Argument: God as greatest conceivable being must exist.

• Objection: Existence isn't a predicate.

C. Design Argument and Notable Objection

• Argument: Complexity suggests a designer.

• Objection: Natural processes can explain complexity.

Problem of Evil and Free Will Defense

A. Existence of Evil

• Questions an all-good God can allow evil.

B. Free Will Defense

• Free will allows moral choices, justifying the presence of evil.

Turing Test and Searle's Argument

A. Turing Test

• Machines can think if they appear to behave like humans.

B. Searle’s Argument

• True understanding requires more than mere behavior mimicry.