psyc study continuation

1. Define stress as it is used by health psychologists today. 

It’s the process by which we perceive and respond to stressors 

2. Discuss research findings regarding the impact of significant life events, catastrophes, and daily hassles on stress.

3. Discuss the effects of social relationships on health and illness.

Social relationship are good for people brcause they help alivate the stress that’s induced during daily hassles and catastrophes. 

4. Describe the physiology of the fight-or-flight response and the role of the brain and nervous system in the stress response.

• The flight-or-flight response activates the both the nervous system and the endocrine system. 

• The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction to perceived danger, triggered by the brain and nervous system, preparing the body to fight or flee by increasing heart rate, breathing, and releasing hormones like adrenaline

• the amygdala is triggered since it involves emotional proccesses 

• Hypothalamus: This brain region acts as a command center, communicating with the rest of the body through the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

5. Describe the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) systems in the body’s response to stress.

Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA) regulates hormonal responses to prolonged stress. It does this by releasing cortisol, which helps the body mobilize energy and suppress noessential functions. The hypothalamus sends chemical messengers to the pituitary gland. From the pituitary gland prompts the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol and other hormones. 

6. Outline some of the approaches health psychologists use to measure stress.

They use self-report which can be subjective. they also use Physiological Measures which include heart rate, blood pressure and cortisol levelos. As well as behavioral measure liking making them perform a task. 

Psychoneuroimmunology examines the interaction between stress and immune response. 

7. Discuss the role of the immune system in stress, and describe the importance of psychoneuroimmunology to a biopsychosocial understanding of stress.

Psychoneuroimmunology examines the interaction between stress and immune response. 

It’s important to understand psychoneuroimmunology to a biopsychosocial because it allows a holistic understanding of stress it’s impact of health. Bc we can see how psychological stressors can alter immune function but also how to find ways to new ways of intervention. 

8. Outline the phases of the general adaptation syndrome.

Alarm Stage – The body detects a stressor and activates the fight-or-flight response, releasing adrenaline and cortisol.

Resistance Stage – The body attempts to adapt to the stressor; cortisol remains high, and physiological resources are used to maintain balance.

Exhaustion Stage – If stress persists for too long, resources are depleted, leading to weakened immune function, fatigue, and increased risk of illness.

9. Explain the transactional model of stress, giving a specific example of the impact of cognitive appraisal on the perception of stress.

It emphasizes that stress is based on an individual’s cognitive appraisal of a situation:

1. Primary Appraisal – Evaluating if an event is a threat, challenge, or benign. (deciding if the situation is relevant or irrelevant, positive or threatening)

2. Secondary Appraisal – Assessing personal resources to cope with the stressor. (access resources and see if you are equipped to deal witht the threat or challenge)

3. Reappraisal – Adjusting perceptions based on outcomes and experiences.

Example: Two students receive the same exam grade. One perceives it as a disaster (threat), experiencing anxiety. The other sees it as motivation (challenge), adjusting their study strategy. This demonstrates how cognitive appraisal shapes stress perception.

10. How and why should stress be your friend?

When people view stress as helpful (e.g., increasing focus, preparing the body for action), their physiological response is healthier, with less cardiovascular strain

11. Discuss the impact of social connection on stress recovery.

 Social connections and a positive mindset about stress can improve resilience.It strengthen the sense of belonging. 

McGonigal, K. (TED Talk) How to Make Stress Your Friend

Stress, Coping, and Resilience

1. Define coping and differentiate approach and avoidant coping styles as well as problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies.

Approach coping involves directly addressing stress (e.g., problem-solving, seeking support).

Avoidant coping involves escaping or ignoring stress (e.g., distraction, substance use).

Stress management: behavioral and cognitive strategies for reducing reactions to stress, can help people improve their quality of life 

Coping: a person's way of managing stress

Problem-focused Coping:

• Is often used when something constructive can be done to help solve the problem or at least make the situation better 

• This can include having different approaches, like seeking assistance from others, taking direct action, and planning

• Most research suggests that people who use this show better signs of adjustment because it helps people eliminate problems before they escalate

Emotional-Focused Coping:

• Changing how you think about stress can be helpful in reducing its negative effects, and can be involved in either approach: emotion-focused coping or avoidance(minimizing) coping

1. Emotion-Focused Coping: changing how one thinks of the problem or venting the problem to others

• Helps reduce the negative effects of stress

• Positive reappraisal:  finding some beneficial aspects of negative events is a benefit for good health 

• Using humor can alleviate your stress 

2. Avoidance Coping:  denying or avoiding the problem

• It’s good for short-term stressors but not long-term ones because it can lead to negative consequences

• This strategy also presents individuals with understanding and ultimately coming to terms with the experience

• Can also lead people to delay seeking medical care 

2. Define resilience and a resilient mindset.

Resilience is the ability to adapt to adversity and recover from stress. A resilient mindset includes:

• Growth mindset (believing challenges promote learning).

• Optimism (expecting positive outcomes).

• Emotional regulation (managing stress constructively).

3. Discuss the relationship between socioeconomic status and coping style.

People in lower socioeconomic situations don’t have the same resources and have a harder time using coping strategies. But they are more resilient because of the life events they’ve have to endure. While people in higher socioeconomic situations are able to use coping strategies more effectively and easily. 

4. Discuss the relationships among explanatory style (mindset), the perception of control, stress, and illness.

• Explanatory style refers to how people interpret events (optimistic vs. pessimistic).

• Perceived control influences stress; feeling in control reduces stress effects.

• Health implications – Low perceived control is linked to higher stress and greater risk of illness.

5. Differentiate the types of social support and discuss the beneficial effects of social support.

Emotional support – Comfort, encouragement.

Instrumental support – Practical help (e.g., financial aid).

Informational support – Advice, guidance.

• Generally describes the help that people may receive

1. Emotional support: the expression of caring, concern, and empathy for a person as well as the provision of comfort, reassurance, and love to that person 

2. Belongingness support: is similar to emotional support in that you can talk but also primarily to the availability of social companionship

3. Instrumental or Tangible support: refers to the provision of concrete assistance such as financial aid, material resources, or needed services

4. Informations or appraisal support: refers to advice and guidance about how to cope with a particular problem. 

6. Discuss who is most likely to benefit from social support and identify the circumstances under which social support is not beneficial.

The people who can benefit from social support are the people are people who experience stressful situations. Findings in research indicate that it isn’t just social relationships that help promote good health, but rather the quality of these relationships. Support can also be nobeneficial and can be seen as a threat, for example if there is an overly intrusive social contacts which could exacerbate stress or social support that is controlling or directive can cause psychological distress. 

7. Describe how such factors as gratitude, a sense of humor, pets, and spirituality may help people cope with stress and perhaps promote health.

8. Describe several relaxation techniques and discuss evidence regarding their effectiveness as stress-management tools.

Behavior and Health

1. Compare and contrast the health belief model and the theory of planned behavior, explaining key concepts and evaluating the success of each model in predicting health behavior.

The health belief model emphasizes how people’s beliefs and perceptions about health influence behavior. It uses perceived susceptibility: which is an individual assessment of the risk of getting the conditions, perceived severity: the assessment of the seriousness of the condition and potential consequences, perceived barriers: an assessment of the influences that facilitate or discourage the adoption of promoted behavior, and perceived benefits: assessment of positive consequences of the adoption of the behavior. 

The theory of Planned Behavior: incorporates additional psychological factors like attitudes, subjective norms, and behavioral control which lead to thinking about the behavior and then performing the behavior. 

2. Describe the transtheoretical model of health behavior and contrast the underlying assumptions of stage and non-stage theories.

The transtheoretical model of health behavior is basically the ability to change habits happens in a gradual way not in a linear way. Non-stage theories: do not recognize the change happens in stages. The transtheoretical model of behavior is a type of Stage theory. 

3. Identify barriers to health promotion at the level of the family, the health care system, and the community.

Some of the barriers to health promotion at the level of the family, the health care system, and the community include the lack of knowledge, resources, and access. There is also a cultural component. 

Family: limited resources, cultural norms, difficulty in understanding the health language

The health care system: lack of access to care for example not being able to pay for insurance, or living far from a health clinic, the stigma and discrimination that can occur. 

The community: the socioeconomic status of people affects where they receive health promotion 

4. Identify the common features of successful health education campaigns.

5. Discuss allostatic load and identify key examples of this.

Allostatic load refers the cumulative burden of chronic stress of the body. 

6. Define the concept of resilience and describe studies that link resilience to stress recovery and anticipation of stress.

Temptations, Cravings & Willpower

1. What is the concept of “delay of gratification” and what are some long-term outcomes.

The concept of delay of gratification is resisteing immediate rewards for long-term benefits. 

Some of the long-term outcomes of delay of gratification is: Managing behavior toward fostering self-interest, Facilitating group membership by garnering social acceptance, and Regulating behavior according to various rules, such as social norms, moral principles, and laws.

2. What are self-control and self-regulation?

Self-control:

•The ability to delay gratification, resisting short-term temptations in order to meet long-term goals

•The capacity to override an unwanted thought, feeling or impulse

•The ability to employ a “cool” cognitive system of behavior rather than a “hot” emotional system

•Conscious, effortful regulation of the self. A limited resource capable of being depleted

self-regulation: self-regulation is about managing the underlying causes and reducing the intensity of those impulses and behaviors

3. Describe ego-depletion and identify some real-world examples.

Ego-depletion typically refers reduced self-control b/c you’ve exerted it. 

for example: you’ve worked on a paper non-stop, on top going to club meeting, and you’ve maintained a schedule but forgot to schedule breaks. Which eventually leads you to stop doing your work bc you can’t control you want to for a phone break. 

4. What is the Strength Model of Self-Control (and some limitations)

self-control is a limited resource, like a muscle, and exertion of self-control in one area can lead to depletion and reduced performance in other areas, known as ego depletion. Some limitations of the model include challenges in identifying the specific resource being depleted. 

Substance Use and Addiction (Opioid Epidemic, Social Media Addiction)

1. Describe the features of substance use disorders as characterized in the DSM-5.

Substance Use Disorders (DSM-5)

Characterized by:

• Impaired control.

• Social impairment.

• Risky use.

• Physiological dependence.

2. Discuss models of addiction, noting the strengths and weaknesses of each model.

• the nicotine fixed-effect model: nicotine stimulates reward-inducing centers in the nervous system, which leads to better memory and concentration and reduced feelings of anxiety and tension.[basically smoking feels good, so that’s why they continue to do it]

• The nicotine regulation model: posits that smoking is rewarding only when the level of nicotine is above a certain “set point” in the body. 

• Tomkins’s affect-regulation model proposes that people smoke to attain positive affect or to avoid (or reduce) negative affect. 

• the multiple regulation model: the combination of physiological and psychological factors leads to addiction; smoking is initially used to regulate emotions, but over time how smokers feel becomes linked with how much nicotine they have in their blood. 

• The biobehavioral model: suggests that nicotine leads to physiological effects that make people feel good, which leads smokers to become dependent on using nicotine to experience these positive effects

3. Compare and contrast reward models and social learning models of addiction.

The moral or self-control theory posits that people who engage in addictive behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, and gambling, have some type of moral weakness (Marlatt, 1985a). According to this theory, people who are lazy and undisciplined lack the “moral fiber” to stop engaging in these self-destructive behaviors. For example, the Temperance Movement during the 1940s and the ban of alcohol during Prohibition reflected this view, advocating that people must be protected from themselves.

• social learning theory: how individuals learn from their environment & influences of social factors:

• for example: children learn attitudes and behaviors by watching others, including their parents, siblings, and peers. Television, movies, and advertisements also model alcohol use norms. Moreover, the mere belief that other people are drinking heavily can lead people to drink more—even if this belief is wrong. Observing people’s alcohol use also creates positive expectations about the consequences of that behavior.

4. Describe the physical and psychosocial consequences of alcohol use.

tension-reduction theory, people drink alcohol to cope with or regulate negative moods, including feelings of tension, anxiety, and nervousness. 

5. Describe the interventions that have been used to treat alcohol dependence.

• there are social influence programs that are aimed at informing teenagers because they want to stop it before it begins suggesting that the information given should also emphasize the short-term effects. These programs are good because the market not doing drugs as being self-reliant and independent which appeals to teens. 

• Another intervention is the life-skill approach which encompasses the same ideas of social influence programs but with this approach,h they provide teens with ways they can enhance their self-esteem and social confidence

• there is the media approach which uses advertisements, social media, and ads to show the negative affects of alcohol abuse. 

• lastly, the government-based approach is where laws are enacted to stop people from consuming alcohol. 

6. Discuss the biological, psychological, and social factors that may explain why people start substance use, why they continue, and why they find it difficult to quit.

Having a family member who uses substances has a higher likelihood of you doing it. People might continue because they think they can control it, but then they realize they can’t live without it it becomes hard to quit. 

7. What is the psychology of pain and pleasure, and how does this relate to addiction?

When we experience pleasure, the brain takes note of that and tries to replicate whether that be social media or a drug. When we experience pain, our brain recognizes that this is not a feeling we want and tries to avoid it. Therefore, when people become addicted to drugs they do it because it brings them pleasure and they continue to avoid the pain that leads them to use the substance. Eventually, the brain gets comfortable the pleasure can no longer be achieved the same way. Pain then begins to seep in because the effects of the substance wear off. 

8. Differentiate between wanting and liking, and their role in addiction.

Wanting is the motivation, “incentive caliche”, an overactive reward system while liking is a positive valence; pleasure, enjoyment

9. Review the themes in The Social Dilemma 

• Identify and discuss the psychological principles at play that measure and manipulate human behavior, as depicted in the film.  

One of the psychological principles at play are a reward system, social media has people rely on likes comments and reposts. It’s saying if you post a picture of yourself you will get likes, which influences your behavior. Another psychological principle is confirmation bias since algorithms are curated for the user people will only get content that aligns with their beliefs which leads to misinformation.

• What are the pros and cons of these techniques to measure behavior?  Can you identify issues of validity, reliability, ethics?

Some of the pros of using these techniques are that grow a company, they earn more money. Some of the cons are that encourages addiction to social media and spreads.  A validity issue that can arise is that the data collected may not reflect the real user preference. A reliability issue is that the algorithm changes so often and leads to inconsistent results. An ethic issue is many users don’t know they are being manipulated. 

• Do you agree with the premise of the film?  Are there areas and themes that were not discussed, that would contradict the main premise of the film?

• What advice would you give to young kids who are new to the world of smart phones, etc.?  What can psychologists do to affect change in healthy ways?

Obesity and Disordered Eating

1. Describe the relationship between obesity and illness.

2. Describe the characteristics of anorexia, bulimia, and orthorexia

Anorexia: a refusal to maintain more than 85% of normla weight

• the driving motivation is fear 

1. of becoming obese 

2. giving into the desire to eat

3. of losing control of body shape and weight

Orthorexia: obsession w/eating pure/healthy food that ine considers healthy 

• not in the DSM

• avoiding other foods that contain needed nutrients

Bulimia: A condition binge eat. 

• Repeated episodes of binge eating and fear of not being able to stop eating.

• self-induced vomiting

• excessive exercise

3. Describe the “swimsuit/sweater” study, and how it relates to body perception

The swimsuit/sweater study involved participants be given either a red swimsuit or a sweater. Then they asked the person if they wanted cookies while wearing the chosen clothing. Then they immediately asked them if they could solve a problem. The study demonstrated that women who wore the swimsuit felt an  increased feeling of body shame since they were worried about how they looked. 

4. How can the various models of health behavior change address addiction and persuasive appeal related to disordered eating? 

   1. Health Beliefs Model

   2. Theory of Planned Behavior

   3. Self Determination Theory

   4. Elaboration Likelihood Model