Research Design textbook Chapter 1
Pizzagate
Edgar Maddison Welch
Tried to save children with assault rifle and caused pandemonium
he fell for the conspiracy theory
Child sex ring in hidden rooms in D.C. pizzeria
Someone set fire to a back room one time in hopes of saving the children
Vaccines don’t cause autism
Conspiracy theory that MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) combination causes autism
False relationship between real events
Correlation does NOT equal causation
Essentially believing things that are untrue can have serious consequences.
knowledge of patterns may indicate causes and, given an ability to manipulate those causes, make it possible to establish control.
Consequence: being overly aware of patterns can lead to false positives (Michael Shermer 2011)
Confirmation Bias - the human tendency to seek out information that confirms what is already believed
Practicing Science
Science - set of activities aimed at producing a systematic, reliable body of knowledge about the natural world and developing valid explanations for its workings.
NGSS Practices of Scientists and Engineers
Asking Questions and Defining Problems
Developing and Using Models
Planning and Carrying Out Investigations
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking
Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions
Engaging Solutions
Engaging in Argument from Evidence
Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information
Science can only answer empirical questions - questions that can be answered through objective observation and analysis, and for this reason, science is said to be empirical.
Empirical - Based on objective evidence and analysis
Systematic Observations - a research method that involves the methodical an structured observation and recording of specific behaviors, events, or phenomena using a pre-defines system, guidelines, and coding procedures
Data - quantitative or qualitative
The goal is to convince other scientists in their field that their data are reliable and logic is correct
Scientific findings are always provisional
science is always self correcting
Newer discoveries that better fit the data can replace previous conclusions
Contribute usefully to a given field of science, you must become an expert on it. At the MINIMUM this means reading the scientific findings, current and proposed theoretical explanations, methods, and techniques.
In graduate school this looks like
working under a professor
Reading the literature extensively
Conducting original research under supervision
After Graduate School
Reviewing the Literature - the practice of reading and digesting the scientific literature on a given topic
Jaak Panksepp
Estonian-American
Experiemental psychology
Interested in biological basis for emotions
basis for more research in emotions
Seeking system
separation anxiety
neuropeptide oxytocin and hormone prolactin responsible for lactation
etc
Science as a Way of Thinking
Science is a way of thinking and viewing the world
Scientist - approaches a problem by carefully defining its parameters, seeking out relevant information, and subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing
Doesn’t accept everything at face value
The effect of lavendar could be explained by explanation effects
Progress check!!!
What are the eight practices of scientists and engineers identified in the Next Generation Science Standards?
Asking Questions and Defining Problems
Developing and Using Models
Planning and Carrying Out Investigations
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking
Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions
Engaging Solutions
Engaging in Argument from Evidence
Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information
What is science and what do scientists do?
Science - set of activities aimed at producing a systematic, reliable body of knowledge about the natural world and developing valid explanations for its workings.
Scientists - approaches a problem by carefully defining its parameters, seeking out relevant information, and subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing
What is meant by the statement that science is a way of thinking?
Science is how one uses critical thinking to narrow down the answer to an empirical question.
Basic and Applied Research
Basic Research - Research carries out to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or disconfirmation of theoretical or empirical positions
acquire general information about a phenomenon
With little emphasis placed on applications to real-world examples of the phenomenon
Applied Research - Research carried out primarily to investigate a real-world problem
Still may work from a theory when designing research
Goal is to generate info that can be applied to a real-world problem
defining quality - researcher attempts to conduct a study the results of which can be applied directly in the real world
Overlap Between Basic and Applied Research
Distinction between both types of research is unclear at times.
Some research have bassic and applied aspects
Even applies research is not independent of theories and other research in psychology
Learning about research: Why should you care?
Science is in everyday
political polls
cures for new diseases
etc
Science in television
news 20/20 on sexual functions in women after a hysterectomy
women and medical professions discuss and corroberate sexual dysfunction post operation
while this is true of their experience IT IS NOT THE CASE FOR EVERYONE
the segment gives the impression that this is common
different women have different experiences
some studies say women are having better sexual function post hysterectomy
If you watch the segment at face-value it’s misleading
Science puts you in a position to evaluate information that you encounter that is supposedly based on “science”
Exploring the causes of behavior
Psychology - the science of behavior and mental processes
The major goals of psychology
to build an organized body of knowledge about its subject matter
to describe mental and behavioral processes and develop reliable explanations for these processes
Research - the principal method for acquiring knowledge and uncovering causes of behavior
You identify a problem and then systematically set out to collect information about the problem and develop explanations
research is like a hunting trip - Robert Cialdini (1994)
Progress Check
How do basic and applies research differ, and how are they similar?
Why should you care about learning about research, even if you are not planning a career in research?
What are the two steps suggested by Cialdini (1994) for exploring the causes of behavior, and how do they relate to explaining behavior?
Science, Protoscience, Nonscience, and Pseudoscience
The goal of developing explanations for behavior is shared by many disciplines.
Examples
Historians trying to explain why Robert E. Lee ordered Pickett’s Charge on the final day of the Battle of Gettysburg
Protoscience - Science at the edges of current scientific understanding: fringe science
often use scientific methods to test ideas
has potential to develop into true science if phenomena studies recieve legitimate scientific support
Nonscience - can be legitimate academic discipline that applies systematic techniques to the acquisition of information
example
Philosophy
Pseudoscience - a set of ideas based on theories put forth as scientific when they are not scientific
examples
phrenology
EMDR
astrology
Scott Lilienfeld (2005) qualities that define a pseudoscience:
Using situation-specific hypothesis to explain away falsification of a pseudoscientific idea or claim
Having no mechanisms for self-correction and consequent stagnation of ideas or claims
Relying on confirming one’s beliefs rather than disconfirming them
Shifting the burden of proof to skeptics and critics away from the proponent of an idea or claim
Relying on nonscientific anecdotal evidence and testimonials to support an idea or claim
Avoiding the peer review process that would scientifically evaluate ideas and claims
Failing to build on an existing base of scientific knowledge
Using impressive-sounding jargon that lends false credibility to ideas and claims
Failing to specify conditions under which ideas or claims would not hold true
Rory Coker (2001) differences between science and pseudoscience
CBT - scientifically backed
Gluten-free diets to treat autism spectrum disorders - pseudoscience
Scott Lilienfeld (2005)
“scared straight” programs, which exposed youthful offenders to harsh prison environments.
Research evidence suggests tha such programs can actually lead to more crime
Second, the time time and energy devoted to poorly supported treatments sap valuable resources that could be better directed toward treatments that are more effective.
The bottom line is that relying on information and treatments that do not have a solid foundation in science can be dangerous.
Scientific Explanations
Scientific explanation - explanation based on the application of accepted scientific methods
differ from nonscientific and pseudoscientific explanations
Scientific Explanations are Empirical
empirical = based on evidence of the senses
Based on objective and systematic observation
often under carefully controlled conditions
must be capable of verification by others
Scientific Explanations are Rational
rational = follows rules of logic and is consistent with known facts
Scientific Explanations are Testable
verifiable through
direct observations
lead to specific predictions about what should occur under the conditions not yet observed
testable = confidence in the explanation could be undermined by a failure to observe the predicted outcome
Scientific Explanations are Parsimonious
Parsimonious explanation - an explanation or theory that explains a relationship using relatively few assumptions
Scientific Explanations are General
Scientists prefer to work within a limited set of circumstances
Scientific Explanations are Tentative
willing to entertain the possibility that an explanation is faulty
mScientific Explanations are Rigorously Evaluated
Scientific explanations are constantly evaluated for consistency with the evidence and with know principles, for parsimony, and for generality.
Attempts are made to extend the scope of the explanation to cover broader areas and to include more factors.
Progress Check!!!
How do science, protoscience, nonscience, and pseudoscience differ?
What are the defining characteristics of pseudoscience?
What are the main characteristics of scientific explanations? (describe each)
Commonsense Explanations versus Scientific Explanations
commonsense explanations - Loose explanations for behavior that are based on what we believe to be true about the world
science and commonsense both start with observation of events in the real world
Belief-Based Explanations versus Scientific Explanations
belief-based explanations - an explanation for behavior that is accepted without evidence because it comes from a trusted source or fits within a larger framework of belief.
post hoc - after the fact explanation
Progress check
How do scientific and commonsense explanations differ?
How do belief-based and scientific explanations differ?
What kinds of questions do scientists refrain from investigating? Why do scientists refrain from studying these issues?
When Scientific Explanations Fail
Scientific explanation is preferable to other kinds of explanation when scientific methods can be applied. Scientific explanations are sometimes flawed. Understanding pitfalls inherent to developing scientific explanations will help you avoid arriving at flawed or incorrect explanations for behaviors
Failures Due to Faulty inference
Explanations may fail because developing them involves an inference process.
Make observations → infer the causes for observed behavior
Inference ALWAYS includes the risk of being wrong
Pseudoexplanations
In formulating valid scientific explanations for behavioral events, it is important to avoid the trap of pseudoexplanation.
Pseudoexplanation - An explanation proposed for a phenomenon that simply relabels the phenomenon without really explaining it.
circular explanation (tautology) - An explanation of behavior that refers to factors whose only proof of existence is the behavior they are being called on to explain
doesn’t provide true explanation but provides another label to explain the first word
Developing independent measures for the explanatory concept and the behavior to be explained may not be easy.
The Emergence of New, Conflicting Information
above it’s noted that humans have a strong need to explain what they experience and that scientific explanations are tentative.
Belief perseverance - resistance to modifying existing beliefs in the face of new evidence
social psychologists call it that
“science” of cereology example
a bunch of scientists came up for the reason of there being crop circles in England
two drunk guys admitted to drawing the circles
scientists reluctant to give up their science
Progress Check
How can faulty interference invalidate and scientific explanation?
Why is it important to consider alternative explanations when drawing inferences from observations?
What are pseudoexplanations, and how do you avoid them?
Why is it important to consider new or conflicting information when forming scientific explanations?
Other Methods of Inquiry
Knowledge about a behavior can be acquired in a number of ways
Scientific information is typically acquired via a process of developing tentative explanations and then subjecting those tentative explanations to rigorous tests via a research process
Scientific methods and processes aren’t the ONLY ways to acquire information.
Looking into two other methods
Method of Authority and the Rational Method
Don’t qualify as truly scientific knowledge
The Method of Authority
Method of Authority - Relying on authoritative sources (e.g., books, jourals, scholars) for information
useful in early stages of acquiring knowledge
doesn’t always provide valid answers to questions about behavior for at least 2 reasons
the source that you consult may not be truly authoritative
You can’t be certain that information you obtain there is valid
sources are often biased by a particular point of view.
a sociologist might offer a different explanation for the Madrid Arena tragedy froom the one offered by a behaviorally oriented psychologist
The method of Authority ALONE is not adequate for producing reliable explanations.
it DOES play an important role in the acquisition of scientific knowledge.
Can familiarize you with the problem
available evidence
Proposed explanations
With it I can generate
new ideas about causes of behavior
Must be subjected to rigorous scientific scrutiny rather than being accepted at face value.
The Rational Method
basis of philosophical methodologies
Rationalism - doctrine claiming valid conclusions about the universe could be drawn through the use of pure reason
Rene Descartes - 17th century philosopher
most people in his day used the method of authority to answer questions
Descartes method
Begins with skepticism
willingness to doubt the truth of every belief
search for “self-evident truths”
must be true because to assume otherwise would contradict logic
Now called the rational method
Rational method - Developing explanations through a process of deductive reasoning
Unfortunately, very few self-evident truths can serve as assumptions in a logical system
if one or both of the assumptions used in the deduction process is incorrect, the logically deduced conclusion will be invalid.
The tentative ideas that we form about the relationship between variables are often deduced from earlier assumptions.
But it’s important to put deductions to empirical testing
Steps in the Research Process
When researchers do science they don’t always follow the same set of steps
But there is a proper organization for their empirical research paper.
From inception of a research idea to the final report of results.
Developing a Research Idea and Hypothesis
The first step is to identify an issue that you want to study
get an idea by observing everyday behavior
reading scientific journals
The state research question in terms that will allow you and others to test it empirically.
Clearly state the relationships that you expect to emerge in a research study.
Formulate precise, testable hypothesis.
This involves deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning - Reasoning that employs logic to derive specific conclusions from a set of assumptions. Forms the foundation of the rational method of inquiry.
Choosing a Research Design
After narrowing research question and develeoped a testable hypothesis
Now we can choose a research design
Other important decisions at this point include where to conduct your study (laboratory or in the field) and how to measure behavior of interest
Choosing Subjects
Human participants or animal subjects
decide how you choose them
how they will be handles
Ethical treatment is IMPARATIVE
Deciding on What to Observe and Appropriate Measures
Decide on behavior you want to observe
Determined on topic/issue of chosen study
Then secondary decisions
Equipment needs, preparation of materials, etc
May need to conduct a miniature version of study called a pilot study, to make sure procedures and materials work in the way I think they will
Conducting the Study
Have subjects take part in study
Observe and measure their behavior
Data formally recorded for later analysis
Analyzing Your Results
Summarize and analyze results
Some types of data are better analyzed with oen method than with another
Most cases calculate descriptive statistics and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics - provide summary of data (averages, and standard deviations)
Inferential statistics - access the precision or reliability of your data
Reporting Your Results
Prepare report of your research using analyzed data. If results are reliable and sufficiently important, maybe you should publish.
Prepare a formal paper (APA Style)
Submit to a journal for review
maybe present paper at scientific meeting
where you prep brief abstract of research for review
Starting the Whole Process Over Again
Final report of research is usually not the final step in research.
Typically results from first study may raise more questions
questions serve as seeds for a new study
maybe replicate an interesting finding within the context of a new study
Progress Check!!!
What are the steps involved in the research process?
What important decisions must be made at each step of the research process?