Absolutism

1648-1815

Derived from the belief in the “divine right of kings”

Sovereignty (ability to effectively rule) is embodied in the person of the ruler

6 MUST KNOW NAMES

• Louis XIV

  • France

• Catherine the Great

  • Russia

• Peter the Great

  • Russia

• Maria Theresa

  • Austria

• Joseph II

  • Austria

• Frederick the Great

  • Prussia

Theories of Absolutism

• Jean Bodin

  • Six Books of the Republic (1576)

    • The king or queen has absolute power to do ANYTHING without having to run it by anyone or anything and not having to worry about it being legal

    • The ruler is next to God

• Thomas Hobbes

  • Leviathan (1651)

    • Absolutism alone could prevent society from lapsing into the “statue of nature,” a constant “war of every man against every man” that made life “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

    • Named leviathan because an absolute ruler is like a strong leviathan

    • People would only obey in the face of severe consequences

    • “Social Contract”

    • An absolute ruler is what keeps us in line and doesn’t tear people apart

• Jaques Bossuet

  • Bishop and tutor to Louis XIV

    • Louis grew up believing that he was chosen by God and no one else was

  • “Divine Right”

    • Kings Ruled by virtue of the will of God

    • Ruler’s authority stemmed from God alone

  • Henry IV -> Louis XIII -> Louis XIV

Henry IV of France

• “A Chicken in Every Pot”

  • promises the french people life will get better under him

• Reduces direct tax

• Roots out corruption

• Institutes Paullete

  • a new tax that is a voluntary tax

  • the paulette tax allows the nobles to pass their titles

• 1598: Edict of Nantes

  • allows huguenots religious freedom in the privacy of their own home

• Laid the foundation for France to become the strongest European nation in the 17th C. 

• Ignored parlements

  • the government that approves his laws

• Did not need to call estates-general to get laws passed because they go along with him

• ignored courts of law

• Stabbed to death by Francois Ravaillac, a Catholic fanatic who blamed Henry IV for the protection of huguenots 

Chief Minister of France - Maximilen de Bethune, Duke of Sully

• Budgets, bookkeeping, and debts

• Efficient tax collection

  • Hired people to collect taxes and was given a quota. If they exceeded, then they can keep the extra

• Internal improvements

• Mercantilism

  • Make money from the colonies for the mother country

  • You know if the country is powerful by gold and silver

• Lowered the taxes but increased the money that they’ve ever made before

Louis XIII

1601-1643; 1610-1643 (ruled)

• He’s depressive

• Hired Cardinal Richelieu to govern the people of france (1624-1642)

  • First minister of the French

  • Policy: Complete and total subjugation of the nobility

  • Politique

  • Started the French Academy

  • Intendant System

    • divides france into 32 different districts and puts intendants in charge of each districts

    • chooses the most loyal people to him

    • 3 functions

      • Collect the taxes

      • Recruit for the Military

      • Monitor the activity in the nobility 

    • La Rochelle

    • entered the Thirty Years War on the behalf of the protestants to help with political power

  • French Taxation

    • Raise taxes to pay for the war

Cardinal Mazarin

• Succeeded Richelieu

• Kept France in the 30 years war

• The fronde (french for slingshot)

  • 1648-1653

  • Peasants take to the streets with slingshots 

  • Peasants take to the streets as they watch nobles protest taxation because they’ve dealt with it for years.

• Tax the Nobles of the robe

  • Mazarin decided to tax these people. 

  • They’re the people with the new money,the bought titles

• Tax the Noble of the sword

  • The nobles that got their titles from knighthood

  • They said he must be out of his mind and they get mad

• Rebellion led to break down of order

• Nobles of sword march on Paris

  • Take to the street as they are mad at the king, cardinal, and THE ROBE (you bought your title blah blah).

  • Peasants take to the streets as they watch nobles protest taxation because they’ve dealt with it for years.

• Louis XIV finally ends Fronde

• Private armies

• Rights of remonstrances

• Results of the Fronde

  • Traumatizes Louis XIV

    • he thinks paris is scary and goes to live in Versaille

  • Breaks the french noble resistance to absolute rule

  • Louis XIV determined to avoid all future rebellions

  • Damages french economy

5 Characteristics of an Absolutist

• Strong Ambitious Dynasty

• Nobles accepted monarchs authority on exchange for exclusive privileges

• Centralized Bureaucracy

  • Gain control of the government 

  • Organization divided into different levels of auth

• Ability to collect and expand sources of revenue

• Deployment of a regular long standing army

  • an army ready to go at any time

Louis XIV

• Appoints more officials

• Multiply fiscal demands of subjects

• Ended most long-standing municipal privileges

  • freedom from taxation or the right to maintain independent courts

• SUN KING

• Edict of Fontainebleau

• it Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

• Helps unite the people... one crown one faith

• Consequences

  • loses a tremendous amount of money doing this because they are majorly involved in the economy

    • The protestant work ethic

    • The huguenots go to the netherlands or england

Jean Baptiste Colbert

• Chief Finance minister under LOUIS XIV

• Mercantilism

• Tariffs

• Eliminated tolls

  • It's like paying taxes on goods imported from another state

  • So he got rid of it because it was bad for the economy 

• Merchant marine

  • Trading ships

• Colonies

• French East India Company

  • competes with the british and dutch east india company

  • the french east india company is least successful

• Royal Academies

• ⅘ of taxes

  • He collects a high number of taxes compared to other countries

War of Spanish Succession

1701-1714

• Louis wanted to unite french and spanish crowns

• Treaty of Utrecht

  • The war ends, france will be able to claim victory but they suffer a very devastating loss

    • They have to give up their new world items to England (France ceded newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay to Britain)

    • Philip V is put onto the throne, but signs a treaty they will never be united (France and Spanish)

  • GB gains asiento

    • control of the slave trade

  • Austria gets the Spanish Netherlands (modern day belgium)

• Grand Alliance vs France and Spain

  • GB, Dutch Republic, Austria, HRE, and Portugal

Absolutism in 17th Century Europe

●

The 17th century was a period of crisis and change in Europe. Agricultural and manufacturing slumps led to food shortages, shrinking population rates and ordinary people reshaping European states.

●

Rulers in states such as England and the Dutch Republic pursued the same policies as absolute monarchs: increased taxation, government authority and social control. Nonetheless, they served as influential models to onlookers across Europe as forms of government that checked the power of a single ruler.

The Thirty Years' War

●

Harsh economic conditions in the decades-long conflict known as the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). The Holy Roman Empire was a confederation of hundreds of largely independent states. The loose political structure and uneasy truce between Catholic and Protestant created policies loosely united under an elected emperor. The uneasy truce between Catholics and Protestants created by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 deteriorated as the Catholic Habsburg emperors tried to reassert their authority and reverse some Protestant gains. Catholics called to retaliate with the Catholic League (1609), and in the north, Protestant princes created the Protestant Union (1608) for their mutual protection.

●

The war, traditionally divided into four phases. The first, or Bohemian, phase (1618–1625) was characterized by civil war in Bohemia between the Catholic League, supported by the Habsburg emperor, and the Protestant forces. In the second, or Danish, phase of the war (1625–1629), the Protestant king of Denmark, Christian IV, intervened in the war to support the Protestant cause but was defeated by the imperial army led by Albert of Wallenstein. In the third, or Swedish, phase (1630–1635), the Protestant king of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1594–1632) and his army intervened in this phase of the conflict by entering alliances against France and Spain. Habsburg power declined precipitously.

●

By the Peace of Westphalia, the major powers agreed to a general recognition of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, which allowed each territory to determine its own religion. Lutherans restored properties lost to Catholicism since 1552 allowed them to practice their faith. Calvinism was recognized as an accepted faith. The treaty also gave Calvinists legal recognition for the first time. The pope was horrified to see the spread of Protestantism.

Achievements in State-Building

●

In the context of seventeenth-century crisis, monarchs took the decisive, hardheaded, even-distinguishable, and demographic decline, warfare, economic disruption, and demographic decline, seventeenth-century monarchs between 1559 and 1715—rulers in such states as France, Spain, and Russia and all of France—spent personal energy and royal funds to increase and consolidate their power.

●

Louis XIV of France pushed absolutist principles to their furthest extreme by concentrating all power in his own hands. He believed in the divine right of kings, God had established kings as his rulers on earth, and they were answerable ultimately to him alone. To symbolize his central role in the divine order, when he was fifteen years old Louis danced at a court ballet dressed as the sun, thereby acquiring the title “Sun King.”

Absolutism in France

●

Henry IV (r. 1589–1610) inaugurated a remarkable recovery by defusing religious tensions and rebuilding France's economy. He issued the Edict of Nantes, allowing Huguenots (French Protestants) the right to worship in 150 traditionally Protestant towns throughout France. Instead of waging war and expending royal resources, Henry tried to rebuild France’s prosperity and royal finances.

●

The growth of royal power during the early seventeenth century culminated in the reign of Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715), the longest in European history.

●

Louis worked very hard at the business of governing. In addition to presiding over several councils of state and personally making all important government decisions, he selected councilors from the recently ennobled or the upper middle class and offered this advice, “It is essential that you do not allow them any intention of sharing power with Louis.” Nor did Louis ever call a meeting of the Estates General, thus preventing the nobility from uniting expression or action.

●

Like a historian, what was Absolutism? (see page 472). He upheld virtue and benevolence. The writings of Bishop Bossuet supported Louis XIV’s absolutist rule consistent with the laws issued by his royal predecessors.

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Life at Versailles. Through most of the seventeenth century the French court had no fixed home, following the monarch to his numerous palaces and country residences. In 1682 Louis moved his court and government to the newly renovated palace at Versailles, a former hunting lodge. The palace quickly became the center of political, social, and cultural life. The king required all great nobles to spend at least part of the year in attendance on him there, so he could keep an eye on their activities.

The French Economy

●

The mercantilism that led to Versailles was dependent on France’s ability to build armies and fight wars depended on a strong economy. Fortunately for Louis, his controller general of finances, Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683), was a strong financial genius. Colbert’s central principle was that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. To this end, he rigorously applied mercantilist policies to France.

●

Mercantilism is a collection of government policies for the regulation of economic activities by and for the state. It derives from the idea that a nation’s international power is based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver. To accumulate wealth, a country always had to sell more goods abroad than it bought. To decrease French purchases of goods from outside the country, Colbert insisted that French industry should produce everything needed by the French people.

Louis XIV’s Wars

●

Louis XIV, more than he character of a conqueror is described as the “noble,” he highest title. In pursuit of the title of conqueror and better France at war for thirty-three of the fifty-four years in power. In 1667 he invaded the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté in pursuit of his claim to inherit the entire Spanish Habsburg dynasty by right.

●

Many historians believe that the new professionalism in the French army, the training, and a rational system of advancement in the state, rather than private nobles, employed soldiers. Indeed, professionalism was the new peak of Louis’s success in reforming the French army represented the culmination of the process that had begun under the Cardinal Richelieu

Whats the foundation of western absolutism

• Total control over nobility and they go along with it as long as they’re not taxed

Habsburg Austria Absolutism

• Strongest within HRE

• They incorporate different land into their power by MARRIAGE

• Hungary sought to overcome Austrian Habsurg power

  • Austria was largely Catholic, Hungary is mostly protestant

    • They want to be religiously free

  • Hungary allied with ottomans against Habsburgs

    • Shocking because the hungarian protestants grouped with MUSLIMS

  • Hungarians embraced nationalism long before other

    • very patriotic

• War of the Holy League

  • Habsburgs recaptured most of Hungary

• 1687

  • Hungary agrees that throne would be hereditary possession of the Habsburgs

  • Hungarian Diet would meet regularly

  • Hungary would have own administration; Magyar nobles tax exempt

    • IN EXCHANGE for all this, the austrians still get to keep control of the habsburgs

• 1713

  • Charles VI drafts the Pragmatic Sanction

    • Charles has no kid to inherit his throne

    • He goes to many places and has to say “would you allow me to name my daughter as the ruler of austria”

    • Everyone but frederick the great said yes because he wants to get silesia

    • Charles VI names his daughter as RULER of Austria

• Austria is weakest because they’re barely holding onto their land

Maria Theresa

• Banned mistreatment of peasants

• “sheep must be well fed if they are yield more wool and milk”

  • If you treat them better, they’ll work harder

  • War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

    • Believed she doesn’t have the right to be the ruler which is why he gets Silesia

    • Prussia, France, Spani Bavaria VS Austria, Russia, Sweden, Denmark

      • This moment introduced prussia into the game as a strong force

    • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

      • Treaty that seized control of silesia to prussia

• Diplomatic revolution (1756)

  • GB allied with Prussia; France allied with Austria and Russia

Joseph II

Reigned 1780-1790

• ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTIST

• Centralized Education

  • doubled the number of elementary schools

• Relaxed censorship

  • Actually increases the number of press publishes

  • He lets people criticize him

• Edict of toleration (1781)

• Abolished serfdom in 1781

  • The nobility get mad

  • The serfs can leave their land but they have nowhere to go so they stay there

  • Since the serfs can’t pay them in money they pay in work so NOTHING changes

Prussian Rulers

Everyone here is a Hohenzollern

This list goes in order of great grandfather, grandfather, dad, son

• Frederick William, The Great Elector of brandenburg and by luck prussia

  • THE ONLY ONE NOT A KING

  • Gets the Hohenzollern name out there

  • He elects the HREmperor

• King Frederick I

  • Promoted from great elector to king

• Frederick William I (the Soldier King) FATTY

  • He’s the first because he is the first to be the king

  • Called the soldier king because he’s obsessed with the soldiers and the giants

• Frederick the Great (Frederick II)

Prussia in the 17th Century

1. Hohenzollern family ruled thru its senior and junior branches as imperial electors of 

   1. Brandenburg and dukes of Prussia

      1. ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG 

         • right to help choose the HRE

      2. 1618

         • Prussia reverted to the elector of Brandenburg

      3. Hohenzollerns were the largest landowners and first among equals

2. Hohenzollern absolutism developed form foreign armies weakened the political power of the estates

   1. Junkers

      1. nobility and the landowning classes who dominated estates of Bradenburg and Prussia

   2. Sided with the king for stability

   3. Gained power over hereditary serfdom in 1653 (hereditary subjugation)

Frederick William, The Great Elector

• 1653

  • Granted funds by junkers to build an army in exchange for right to import goods without taxes and confirmation of royal privileges

• Junkers become officer class

  • Building an army, can serve their state by leading

  • Can use this as a weapon to the junkers so they go along with it

• 1st modern civil service

  • You work for the government because of merit

  • You have to pass a test which is good because they have to be competent

  • You move up by working hard, taking a test, and getting promoted

  • The prussian government becomes more competent and expands more

Frederick I, King of Prussia

1688-1713

• Allied with Hapsburgs in War of League of Augsburg and War of Spanish Succession

  • Allied with Leopold who is the HREmperor which is way better than the great elector

  • Leopold said to honor him supporting him, he gets promoted from the great elector of brandenburg prussia to the KING

• 1st king of prussia

• The ostentatious

  • He’s known as this

  • Very fancy, with extravagant wealth and clothes

Frederick William, Fatty - The Soldier King

• He LOVED his giants

• State service became a way of social mobility

  • You can either the state in the army? or serve in the military

• “Prussias is not a state with an army, rather an army with a state”

  • Everything was geared towards would this benefit my army

• All young men ordered to register for military service

• Abolished luxury industries; 

  • Replaced workshops for military uniforms

  • Bye bye silk industry hello wool industry

  • Prussian economy takes a nosedive underneath him

• 1st system of military reserves in Europe; 2 month of summer drills

• 39,000 to 80,000 royal guards were the potsdam giants

• Military expenditure accounted for half of prussia’s state budget

Frederick II, “The Great”

“First servant of the people”

• Opposite of his father, very well educated and very philosophical, poetry

• Meets the common people

• First 23 years of reign- WAR

  • Invaded silesia, didn’t recognize Maria Theresa

    • Sparked war of Austrian Succession (1740-48)

      • Spain, France, and Prussia fought Austria, Great Britain, Netherlands, and Russia

    • Didn’t sign the pragmatic sanction

  • Diplomatic revolution (1756), realigned with Great Britain

    • Switched alliances

    • Led to 7 years war (1756-63)

      • All of Europe and global conflict

      • Prussia pushed to brink of defeat, held together by frederick the great, frederick the great leads them in victory to prolong the war

      • This war is spilt over into the rest of europe and into NA, in NA its known as the french and indian war

    • Also bitter of enemy Catherine the Great

      • When CTG dies her son peter takes the throne

      • Peter is a military finatic of FII, and is obsessed, so he pulls his russian army out of the war and allows prussia to sign a peace treaty

• Next 23 years - Internal Administration and Organization

  • Big on enlightenment ideas, claims to be an enlightened absolutist

  • Expanded and improved education system

  • Legal and court reforms

  • Expands trade and manufacturing

  • Committed to religious tolerance

    • he doesn’t do anything to minimize his own power though

  • No interest in granting self-government to national or ethnic minorities

  • When he passed away he left prussia as a rival of Austria of control of Germany and a first-rate European Power

• Freed royal serfs, banned physical  punishment of serfs

• Abolished capital punishment and relaxed censorship

• Introduced examination style, for state bureaucracy

• Prussian Code

  • Complete freedom of religion and conscience 

• Transformed a sad spartan into a brilliant athens

  • Expanded steel and iron industries

  • Built canals to haul goods and expand trade

  • Created workshops for porcelain, textiles, glass, clocks

  • Built national food warehouses

    • One of the first countries that people can go to their government and be fed food

The Russian Empire:

• Ivan the Great -> Ivan the Terrible

  • ITT built a prison

• “Time of Troubles: -> Romanovs (1613)

  • ToT is the struggle for the throne

  • The romanovs emerge from that

• 1649

  • Serfdom established (90% of peasants!)

  • As you go from west to east the standard of living decreases

  • The nobles are less wealthy, etc.

• Reign of Peter the Great

  • Age 25: took a “Grand Tour”

    • Goes to the west and travels, a demonstration of their wealth, something the nobles do

    • He learned that russia is FAR behind on this

    • So when he goes back this becomes his guiding principle

  • Impressed by military strength and bureaucracy of the West

    • Peter set out to WESTERNIZE (modernize) Russia

      • Everything he did was down to what a table setting they had set, down to a tee

      • Nobles ordered to shave beards, use glasses, bowls, and napkins

        • If they didn’t shave their beard they had the beard tax, a year's worth of salary

        • The russians ate like slobs out of one bowl so he changed it up

      • Book of etiquette, western palaces, bonnets, skirts

        • BOE taught people proper manners and mannerisms

      • Built russian Academy of Science

      • Hermitage Museum

        • Royal Art collection

    • Impressed w/ military strength

    • went into the Great Northern War (1700-21) v. Charles XII (21) (sweden) because he wanted to expand russia

      • Battle of Poltava 

        • Treaty of Nystadt

          • Gained a window to the west with 3 baltic states acquired 

    • Russian Domestication of the nobility

      • Forced novels sons into military and engineering schools

        • Your sons HAVE to go and they will be sent to the west to be educated

      • Bureaucracy was a meritocracy 

        • Promote people based of merit, not who they are

      • “Soul Tax”

        • Paying for the privilege to live inside of russia, not taxing because you’re a noble, but because you’re living here

    • State monopolies on various industries

      • Total control towards nobles loyal to him

    • State control of mining and metal industries

    • Economic problems facing Russia?

      • Their very big size, behind on the times, have a lack of infrastructure, no roads

      • REALLY hard to get goods out and into russia because there is no internal infrastructure

    • Created 50 administrative districts 

      • Inspired by intendant system

    • Created a senate (duma)

    • Tables of Ranks

      • Nobles ranked based on state service

      • Basically starts the titles over again and assigns all the nobles a ranking

      • The nobles start to compete with each other to move up the table of ranks, which gives you more access

    • Built St. Petersburg

    • Revolt of the strelsky (honor guard) in 1689 scarred Peter as the Fronde scarred Louis XIV

    • Tripled taxes on peasantry to create 300k military force to help finance it

    • Nobles were required to have 5 years of education away from home

    • 85% of revenue spent on the military

    • Issued decrees with explanations for the 1st time in Russian History

    • Dies in 1725

      • Wife Catherine becomes Empress Catherine I

      • 11/14 kids die before adulthood

Growth of St. Petersburg

• New capital

  • First modern city of russia

• Broad, paved, straight avenues

• Uniformity in construction

  • Mandates how far apart houses are to be from the road

• Parks, Canal, Bridges, Street lighting

• Each social class had an assigned section

• Forces 25k-40k workers to build for 3 months (without pay) and rotates them in and out every 3 months

• Every 10-15 households had to supply food for St. Petersburg

• Ordered nobles, merchants, artisans to settle

Absolute rules claimed to be “PART” of the enlightenment, but it was just a “TRAP”

Patronage of the philosophies

Absolutism
Reform of institutions

Toleration of religious minorities

• They make it sound like they care and want to have equal power but never do anything to make it equal

• They claim to do all these things to make themselves feel better

Catherine the Great, German Princess

• 1st printing presses inside of russia

  • more books!

• Jews granted civil equalities

• Partition of Poland

  • 1772, 

    • Take poland and divide it in between prussia russia and austria (because there is no reason to fight over it, more land and power when gained, also regained relations between PR, RU, and AU)

  • 1793, 

    • Take poland and divide it in between p  russia russia and austria

  • 1795

    • Take poland and divide it in between prussia russia and austria

  • After 1795 poland will cease to exist until WW1

• Championed French Culture

• Legislative commission to reflect desires of nobles, gentry class

  • Wants their opinions on making the right decisions to govern the country

• Smolny Institute

  • 1st state institution for higher education of (noble) women

• Modeled her reign after Peter the Great

  • Creation of the “Golden Age of Russia”

  • Wishes to westernize russia just like PTG

• Pugachev Rebellion in 1773

  • Pugachev convinces himself that he is the reincarnation of her late husband, here to reclaim his throne

  • He encourages the peasants and serfs to overthrow CTG, eventually he is arrested, caged, and executed by CTG

  • She learned that when she decides to be enlightened, people will try to overthrow me, so from that point forward she was just and absolutist

• ‘

Seven Years War

• Austria France and Russia v. Prussi, GB, And Portugal

• Treaty of paris

  • France gave up all of their NA possessions to east of mississippi to GB

    • Spain gets Louisiana, France gets colonies in the West Indies, St. Lucia

• Austria and Prussia signed treaty; no changes

Decline of Absolutist Spain

• Classic Characteristics of an absolutist state

• Had most powerful military until mid-17th century

• Basis of economy, and thus source of monarchical power, was precious metal from the New World

• Decline began during reign of Philip II with the defeat of the Spanish Armada AND the Dutch revolt for independence in 1588

  • Severe blow to Spanish pride and economy

• Spain Lacked a strong middle class

  • Moriscos (Muslim moors) and Marranos (converted jews)

  • The muslims and jews were kicked out

• THERE WAS NO MIDDLE CLASS IN SPAIN

• Inflation was rampant

  • 1596, 1607, 1627, 1647, AND 1680 saw the cancelling of national debt

    • When they wanted to take out a loan in these years to pay back their debt, the interest was skyrocketing because they have no money

• Large number of privileged noble class simply refused to work

  • Aristocracy saw banks as vulgar and money making as undignified

  • Increased taxes and rents to afford their no longer affordable lifestyles

  • People forced from land and led into cities

  • Rejected ideas of “heretical” nations

  • Military $$, famine, sheep tax, native american population decreased

• England and the Dutch began to trade with Spanish colonies but not Spain

• “Hapsburg line was in-bred and stupid”

• “Small, beady eyes, long noses, pathetically stupid expressions”

• “All Lacked a force of character”

• Gaspar de Guzman, Count-Duke of Olivares, Controlled Spain for Philip IV

  • Revived war with the dutch at the end of a truce

  • Increased taxes on an already overtaxed population

  • 1610-1650

    • Revenue from trade dropped between 50-60%

  • Thirty Years War

    • Politically and economically disastrous

    • Portugal used war to reestablish independence

  • Treaty of Pyrenees

    • Marked end of SPain as a great power in Europe

      • Lost parts of Spanish Netherlands and territory in northern Spain to France

  • Population in 1550: 7.5M || Population in 1660: 5.5M

  • Charles II

    • One of the worst rulers in habsburg history

    • lack of heir resulted in Was of Spanish Succession

  • Treaty of Utrecht