1. Empire and the emergence of world powers 1870-1919
The desire to find and exploit new trading opportunities had been one of the main reasons for imperial expansion in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Through mercantilism the most powerful European nations aimed to increase their wealth through trade.
They were able to accumulate large quantities of gold and silver. Gaining overseas possessions provided a cheap source of raw materials and labour and valuable products such as spices and silk, which weren’t available in Europe. At the same time, these overseas possessions provided a guaranteed and lucrative market for European goods.
Many European businessmen became extremely wealthy by exploiting this favourable, government-supported trading system.
By the 18th century, Empires were neither stable nor permanent constructs. mercantilism began to decline by this time and maintaining control over overseas possessions and trade routes from rival nations was expensive and often led to wars. In 1776 Adam Smith published a book in which he argued “A nation’s ability to increase its production of goods and services depended on investment in new methods. Government control over the nation’s economy is not necessary or desirable. In this, the incentive for government-sponsored imperial expansion declined.
Goods were mass-produced on such a scale that it became essential to find new sources of raw materials with which to make them and new markets in which to sell them
Cotton | Mozambique/Africa/India |
Copper | South Africa |
Rubber | Congo |
Tin | British Malaya |
Tea | China |
Silk | China |
Diamonds | South Africa/The Transvaal |
Palm oil | West Africa |
Entrepreneurs who made massive profits from industrialisation wanted new places to invest their wealth.
Development of the railway system
Long depression: prices of goods deflated because the production of goods was out-stripping the demand. This lasted from 1873-1896. This forced the government to promote overseas possessions which guaranteed markets for new businesses.
Competition between Britain and France for more resources to exceed rival economic status
European borders had been settled by 1871 and only war could change these borders, war was something that all nations were keen to avoid. Due to this, countries had to look overseas in order to enhance their own industrialisation and increase their wealth, power, prestige, and influence.
In the late 19th century, nationalism was on the rise. Germany and Italy wanted to establish themselves as newly unified nation-states. France wanted to recover from its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871).
In the Naval Defence Act (1889), the British formally adopted the two-power standard. This aimed to ensure that the British Navy remained at least as powerful as the combined strength of the next two largest navies.
European governments increasingly portrayed overseas possessions as symbols of national pride and power. Countries such as France started to believe it was their duty to spread their language, culture, and beliefs to other parts of the world to civilise barbarians. (white man’s burden)
Industrialism led to the emergence of a large and increasingly organised working class, which demanded social, economic, and political reform.
To reduce the threat, governments portrayed overseas expansion as beneficial to everybody.
The instability of the Egyptian government threatened new trading routes so in 1882 Britain took over the administration of Egypt and established a port in the Cape colony through the Suez Canal.
The period from 1871 to 1914 witnessed a new wave of ‘New Imperialism’. There were 3 main characteristics to this ‘New Imperialism’.
Geographic scope/pace: Whereas the previous imperialism was largely focused on North and South America, New Imperialism centered on Africa and Asia. This could credited to the Scottish missionary, David Livingstone, who discovered the source of the Nile. Moreover, the crumbling Chinese Empire offered opportunities to increase vital trade links with the Far East.
Maintaining peaceful relations: Although the rush to acquire new overseas possessions inevitably involved rivalry between European nations, there was a constant aim to prevent warfare. The Treaty of Berlin (1885), for example, laid down ground rules by which European nations should carry out their plans for expansion in Africa - a clear attempt to avoid confrontation
New imperial countries: Massive industrial growth led the USA to seek greater control over Central and South America, together with access to trading rights in Asia. Moreover, Japan wanted to seek greater power and influence within Asia.
This type of Imperialism wasn’t always possible and was only made possible by these two factors:
Medical advancement: In the late 18th century, Africa which had been known as the ‘White Mans Grave’ because of diseases such as Malaria. The medicine Quinine, discovered by French Scientists in 1817, was shown to be effective against Malaria. Now there were no more fears, the interior walls were falling and Asia and Africa became more accessible to Europeans.
Technological advancement: The Industrial Revolution led to the introduction of new methods for producing iron and steel both cheaply and in large quantities. This facilitated developments in railways and steamships, which made transport quicker and safer, which also made it easier to navigate rivers such as the Congo, the Zambezi and the Niger. Additionally, Development in weapons, artillery, and machine guns gave Europeans advantages over under-developed African Societies, for example the Matabelle War (1893)
By 1820, most European governments had banned the slave trade, arguing that slavery was ‘repugnant to the principles of natural justice’
In the early 19th century scientists Johann Friedrich Blumenbach and Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau developed theories to say that white people were racially superior to other races. Other texts started implying that certain races were inferior, being less evolved and thus less human than others.
Europeans started to believe it was their duty to bring order, stability, and civilisation to the lives of ‘pagans’ Africans and Asians. The claim that European nations were gaining overseas possessions in order to improve the lives of the local people provided a convenient justification for actions that were, in reality, motivated by self-interest and characterised by exploitation.
In 1870 only 10% of Africa was under direct European control. Europeans didn’t know much about Africa, only that it seemed. to be mysterious, inhospitable, and dangerous. Soon as more exploration was happening, European fears of Africa reduced and in the last quarter of the 19th century there was a ‘scramble for Africa’.
Britain’s original concern had been to protect its vital Indian Ocean Trading Route. This is why they had mainly focused their Imperialism on Egypt and South Africa. The discovery of gold and diamonds as other valuable minerals in the Boer’s independent republic in the Transvaal alerted Britain of the opportunities of colonising other African countries.
They were determined to stop other countries from gaining these other mineral-rich areas for themselves. Therefore Britain took most of Southern and East Africa in the last 20 years of the 19th century. By 1900 Britain had Egypt, the Sudan, British East Africa (Kenya and Uganda), British Somaliland, Southern and Northern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), Bechuanaland (Botswana), Orange Free State and Transvaal (South Africa), Gambia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, British Gold Coast (Ghana), and Nyasaland (Malawi). By 1930, they controlled 30% of Africa.
France was more Focused on Eastern and Western Africa. They wanted to enhance Nationalism and wanted to gain resources. The desire for popular military success ended in the invasion of Algeria. Partly as a result of the Slave Trade they ended up controlling the coastal areas of Senegal. They ended up moving inland in search of timber and palm oil.
The decisions on Africa by the French ended up being heavily influenced by their loss in the Franco-Prussian war and the desire to prove themselves.
Belgium had only been independent since 1830, however, they were determined to enhance their country’s prestige and wealth by claiming the enormous Congo basin. King Leopold II saw enormous financial advantages by exploiting the Congo’s large quantities of raw rubber, a commodity much in demand in Europe.
They had already built long-standing contacts with the African African Coast during the first wave of exploration in the 16th century. Portugal extended its long-established claims to Angola and Mozambique.
Germany came late to the ‘Scramble Of Africa’ due to their late unification after the Franco-Prussian war. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to concentrate on national security by focusing on alliance-building and avoiding unnecessary rivalry with other countries. However, pressure from business-men, the Navy League, and the colonial expansion encouraged the public support of colonisation and forced them to change their policy and Germany ended up colonising Kamerun (now part of Cameroon and Nigeria), German East Africa (An area between Rwanda, Burundi, and most of Tanzania), German South-West Africa (Namibia), and Togoland (now divided between Togo and Ghana).
These colonies weren’t very profitable and cost more than they were worth.
Benefits of Imperialism on Africa | |
Education for Natives | Didn’t consider local Geography |
Water sanitation | African culture was undermined |
New transport system | African government was killed or exiled |
Developed states | Administrative Hierarchy |
Better farming | Changed African Economy |
Landownership change | |
Large scale exploitation |
While there was some opposition to ‘New Imperialism’, many people enthusiastically supported the colonisation their country was partaking in. The increase of nationalism characterised the late 19th century.
Even before ‘New Imperialism’, Britain already had a vast overseas empire, larger than any other European nation. The British people knew they had influence in other foreign lands and believed the empire was a symbol of power, prestige, and national pride.
It was compulsory in schools to teach and encourage national pride and loyalty. Moreover, newspapers were owned and controlled by rich pro-imperialists therefore they aimed to shape public opinion in favour of overseas expansion. Stories about mysterious foreign lands, and their strange inhabitant’s seen as ‘barbaric’, were hugely popular.
Popular literature such as Kim by Rudyard Kipling, justified British rule of India by saying the Indians were fortunate to have British rule over them. Others implied that the foreign lands were rightfully British and were “stolen”. In many ways, the positive aspects of Imperialism were stressed and the drawbacks were hidden. In 1807 when Britain banned slavery and carried out their ‘moral responsibility’ to free the slaves.
Although in Britain it was everyone who tried to boost nationalism, in France, it was mainly the government after the Franco-Prussian War. Patriotism was fostered through the introduction of a state education system. They were taught that they had a duty as their country, which was unique, superior to all others, and had both the right and the responsibility to spread its culture across the world.
French adopted the foreign policy of the ‘Mission Civisatrice’. The Roman Catholic Church stressed the civilising aspects of French imperialism in publications such as La Croix. This painted French imperialism in a positive light- it was helping people, not exploiting them. It was bringing Christianity, Civilisation, and French culture to people in distant lands whose customs included human sacrifice, slavery, and other forms of brutality.
They also tried to convince the public it was doing good for the economy.
Germany used to be reluctant to become involved in overseas expansion and they feared seeking overseas possessions would bring Germany into conflict with other European nations. Eventually, they joined the trend of colonisation. In addition, to the potential economic advantages that Germany might achieve, the German government was keen to use it to promote nationalism. Organisations such as the Colonial Society and the Navy League encouraged public support of Imperialism.
German missionaries justified this as ‘Bringing Christianity to heathen population.’ and also provided the government with information and connections that facilitated Germany’s acquisitions of new territories.
A number of religious leaders, intellectuals, and writers argued that it was morally wrong to seize control of the territory that rightly belonged to. the local inhabitants. For example, Heart of Darkness published by Joseph Conrad raised major issues about imperialism and racism.
Moreover, British economist John Hobson concluded a study by stating imperialism was not cost-effective and the lower class felt imperialism didn’t benefit them.
In the late 19th century, European nations were rivals, competing for raw materials, markets, trade, and territory. European governments were determined to protect their own rights and interests, to gain as much overseas territory as possible, and to defend their empires. Countries were willing to adopt aggressive foreign policies to preserve pride. Naturally, this led to many conflicts.
In 1898, a clash between the rival African ambitions of Britain and France almost led to war. While France was moving East to French West Africa, Britain was moving South to Cape. They crossed at Sudan and both claimed Sudan as their own.
As they were preparing for war, France realised they couldn’t take another war after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. The French prime minister told the French army to stand down and started negotiations
France ended up recognising British possession of Egypt and Sudan, while Britain formally acknowledged the French presence in Morocco
Most countries started to instigate an arms race to defend their countries as tensions in Europe started rising and countries wanted to be able to defend their Empires. This was evident after Kaiser Wilhelm II came into power in 1888 and embarked on the Weltpolitik policy, which involved actively seeking overseas possessions or as Kaiser Wilhelm called it, “A place in the sun” a jab at the common saying “the sun never sets on the British empire”.
Germany had been a bit late due to their late unification so their quest for Africa only added to existing tensions. Especially with Britain, specifically, the Naval Defence Programme that Germany later embarked on in 1906.
Due to the German Navy being focused on the North Sea, threatening Britain, a Naval arms race led to increased tensions between Britain and Germany.
Due to France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, France felt threatened by the Weltpolitik.
In 1904, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale which settled the long-standing rivalry between Britain and France and their problems within the Fashoda Incident.
Germany felt threatened by this new alliance and decided to do something about it
In 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm made an aggressive speech in the city of Tangiers in Morocco for Moroccan independence leading to the first Moroccan crisis
Instead of creating a divide between the Entente Cordiale, it brought Britain and France closer at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.
In 1911, Kaiser Wilhelm sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir which led to the Agadir crisis also known as the second Moroccan crisis.
Britain sided with France and so Germany backed down instead of going to war
Although there were no wars from 1871-1914, European countries still wanted to expand, seize, and gain control of more territories and this was not done in a peaceful way and nor done without consequences.
For many years the Chinese considered themselves superior to other countries and they were convinced they had little to learn from foreigners, therefore this led to them being self-contained. However, in the 19th century, this proved to be terrible as they were incapable of adapting to the modernizing world around them. This started to show when the European countries started to force trade with China after the Industrial Revolution led to a need for raw materials. Very quickly, Britain started importing Opium to China which led the government to ban its importation, which was ignored by British merchants. This led to the First Opium War (1839-42) and the Second Opium War (1856) where Britain won and took control of Hong Kong and through the Treaty of Tientsin (1860) legalized opium trading into China and opened its ports. With these now-open ports, foreign traders established spheres of influence, railways, factories, and more, all ignoring China’s laws and policies. From 1850-64 The Taiping Rebellion happened and 20 million people died, this was taken down by the government with British and French help. The situation worsened after the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese war (1895-96) and the Open Door Policy.
The Chinese nationalists were angered by the government’s failure to prevent foreigners from gaining spheres of influence and this led to the Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901).
The Chinese government hesitantly supported this however were beaten by the 8-nation alliance after they invaded Peking. This forced China to pay 67 Million Euros over 39 years as compensation.
Britain took control of the Cape Colony after the Napoleonic Wars in 1814 and British immigration started in 1820. Soon Britain changed the economy, the national language, the tax system, and the original Dutch farmers were angry. Moreover, with the abolition of slavery in 1834, the Boers couldn’t rely on slave labor to maintain their farms. Many Boers left Cape Colony from 1835-1840 and moved east to what became known as the ‘Great Trek’, settling in Transvaal and The Orange Free State.
In 1877 the British tried to persuade Transvaal and the Orange Free State to join the Cape Colony in federations where Britain would take over the Republics which led to the First Boer War (1880-1881) where Britain failed. However, when there were more discoveries of gold in Transvaal led to the Jameson Raid in 1885 which failed. This led to Kaiser Wilhelm II sending a telegram congratulating the Boers.
In 1899, Kruger demanded the withdrawal of British troops in Transvaal, when Britain denied it, Kruger declared war. With the Boers's guerilla tactics and German-supplied arms, they got a lot of early victories, however, when Britain started their scorched earth strategies the British were finally able to win, however, there were 22 thousand dead from war, 30,000 died in concentration camps, and 200 million euros in the war cost this led many to condemn British actions in Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
Organised by Otto Van Bismark, it was meant to settle European conflicts over the ‘Scramble For Africa’
13 European Nations met between November 15th 1884-February 26th 1885
Led to free passage through the Niger and Congo rivers
Slavery being abolished throughout the African continent.
You had to claim land and tell other countries
conflicts had to be settled by negotiation rather than war
Japanese control over Port Arthur caused considerable alarm in Russia as not only did they want Port Arthur for themselves, but it also undermined the interest in the existing European nations.
Russia, France, and Germany all became the Triple Intervention and forced Japan to give Port Arthur back to China
In the first half of the 19th century, Japan was still an unmodernised country with an almost medieval social structure, the economy was still largely based on bartering rather than money, eg. taxes were paid in rice.
Out of fear of colonisation, Japan closed its borders to all foreigners which prevented japanese citizens from leaving. Russia, Britain and the USA all tried to open up trade with Japan and all failed. The USA was very desperate to gain trading rights for three main reasons
American commercial interests were pressuring the US government to open Japanese markets or their rapidly expanding industrial output.
The American whaling fleet needed access to Japanese ports in order to take vital supplies, especially coal.
In 1849, the USA sent a warship to Japan to rescue American sailors who had been shipwrecked off the Japanese coast. The Japanese were reluctant to let the ship into the port. The US was angered by the fact the sailors had ben harshly treated by the Japanese.
After Japan’s abstinence to trade, in 1853-1854 the USA sent a bunch f ships under the command of Commodore Perry, after Japan demanded the ships leave, America threatened violence
In 1854, Japan signed a treaty that allowed Japan to trade with America, in 1858 the Japanese signed another Treaty which allowed them to trade with foreign countries.
Japan was worried that they would be divided into smaller states by the foreign powers like China was going through so they decided to call off the current military Shogun and reinstated Emperor Meiji to start the reforms
The Meiji reforms started in 1867 and allowed Japan to establish a central administration, uniting all the independent regions of Japan and a new constitution based on the German model by 1869. Moreover, Japan modeled its education system, form of government, army, navy, and industry on those of the foreign powers they feared. Some were established by the government and then handed over to private enterprises.
To cover the costs of rapid modernisation, Japan concentrated on promoting its export trade, especially in textiles. Moreover, compulsory military service for all adult males was implemented in 1894.
Modernisation allowed for Japan to maintain its independence. Soon, Japan realised it possessed limited natural resources, so it started to look for overseas possessions in order to gain what it lacked. The disintegration of China allowed Japan to test its military strength.
In 1894, Japan quickly took over Manchuria, Korea and more parts of China. Soon China was forced to sign the Treaty Of Shimonoseki 1895 and China was forced to give over Korea and Port Arthur. Russia felt threatened by Japan as China was their warm water port. This led to the ‘Triple Intervention’ Where Japan was forced to give back Port Arthur.
By 1900, Russia occupied the entire Manchuria and it was obvious they wanted to seize Korea. Japan saw this as a serious threat. At the same time, Russian expansion in China threatened the British commercial interests in China and they quickly realised they had to quit ‘splendid isolationism’
During 1901 negotiations between Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne of Britain and Hayashi Tadasu of Japan started their negotiations. They soon agreed in 1902 that Britain and Japan would not get involved if it was a 1v1 war against another country, however as soon as it became larger, thy would join.
As Russia started to move further up to China reaching Korea, Japan tried to negotiate but Russia wanted war as they believed they were superior to Japan.
In 1904, Japan destroyed two warships and pushed Russia all the way back to Mukden. At this time Japan also gained control of the nearby seas which meant that Russia had to go around Europe to reach China instead. As Britain had control of the Suez Canal, they refused Russian entry which made their trip longer.
When Russia finally got to a face-off with Japan, they ended up losing to Japan’s more modernised ships.
The Treaty Of Portsmouth ended Russian influence in Manchuria and Kora was formally recognised as Japan’s property.
In less than 50 years, Japan was a modernised country. As Japan entered the 20th century, they were perceived as the champion of Asia against the Western powers. The Western powers started becoming weary of Japan in the Far East.
Respecting their alliance with Britain, Japan joined the First World War after declaring war on Germany and its primary role was to secure sea lanes of the South Pacific and the Indian Ocean against the German Navy. Japan took advantage of European absence in the Far East which led to-
Japan supplying the Far East region with goods the European countries no longer could provide. Japan’s export of cotton cloth increased threefold while its heavy industry expanded to fill the gap left by the absence of steel, iron, and chemicals from the Europeans.
A surge in exports, the merchant fleet almost doubled its size.
A boost in the Japanese shipbuilding industry, which was also boosted as Japan was supplying the allies with these ships.
Japan was able to expand its own interest in China without facing opposition from Western powers. After an ultimatum, Japan was able to give China 21 demands but after European intervention, those demands were lessened.
Japan provided a series of loans to China which increased Japans financial, commercial and economic influence over China.
The USA was a small nation at the start of the 19th century and their independence was only recently recognised. For. most of the 19th century the USA focused on internal issues as they had their own civil war (1861 to 1865) and they didn’t have any interest in international affairs which allowed for the isolationism policy.
Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803, Florida was taken from the Spanish in 1818 which led to America taking Texas in 1845 after Texas established themselves as an independent state in 1836 from the failing Mexico.The Treaty Of Oregon 1846 gave America even more land and after winning against Spain, the Treaty Of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) gave California, New Mexico, Nevada, and Arizona to the USA. In 1853 the USA purchased more land from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase and in 1867 America purchased Alaska from Russia.The Europeans saw America’s annexation of Texas being America bullying Mexico however America justified their actions through ‘manifest Destiny” which allowed them to
Justify American expansion to the Pacific Ocean as logical and inevitable
Make aggressive nationalism desirable
Prove America has a ‘Divine right’ to continue expanding west until it spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Justify America's duty to spread “Christian” values and culture.
Incoorporation in the USA would bring liberty and freedom to other North American territories.
This also led to the Monroe Doctrine where America promised to not interfere with European issues and vice versa.
The desire to find and exploit new trading opportunities had been one of the main reasons for imperial expansion in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Through mercantilism the most powerful European nations aimed to increase their wealth through trade.
They were able to accumulate large quantities of gold and silver. Gaining overseas possessions provided a cheap source of raw materials and labour and valuable products such as spices and silk, which weren’t available in Europe. At the same time, these overseas possessions provided a guaranteed and lucrative market for European goods.
Many European businessmen became extremely wealthy by exploiting this favourable, government-supported trading system.
By the 18th century, Empires were neither stable nor permanent constructs. mercantilism began to decline by this time and maintaining control over overseas possessions and trade routes from rival nations was expensive and often led to wars. In 1776 Adam Smith published a book in which he argued “A nation’s ability to increase its production of goods and services depended on investment in new methods. Government control over the nation’s economy is not necessary or desirable. In this, the incentive for government-sponsored imperial expansion declined.
Goods were mass-produced on such a scale that it became essential to find new sources of raw materials with which to make them and new markets in which to sell them
Cotton | Mozambique/Africa/India |
Copper | South Africa |
Rubber | Congo |
Tin | British Malaya |
Tea | China |
Silk | China |
Diamonds | South Africa/The Transvaal |
Palm oil | West Africa |
Entrepreneurs who made massive profits from industrialisation wanted new places to invest their wealth.
Development of the railway system
Long depression: prices of goods deflated because the production of goods was out-stripping the demand. This lasted from 1873-1896. This forced the government to promote overseas possessions which guaranteed markets for new businesses.
Competition between Britain and France for more resources to exceed rival economic status
European borders had been settled by 1871 and only war could change these borders, war was something that all nations were keen to avoid. Due to this, countries had to look overseas in order to enhance their own industrialisation and increase their wealth, power, prestige, and influence.
In the late 19th century, nationalism was on the rise. Germany and Italy wanted to establish themselves as newly unified nation-states. France wanted to recover from its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871).
In the Naval Defence Act (1889), the British formally adopted the two-power standard. This aimed to ensure that the British Navy remained at least as powerful as the combined strength of the next two largest navies.
European governments increasingly portrayed overseas possessions as symbols of national pride and power. Countries such as France started to believe it was their duty to spread their language, culture, and beliefs to other parts of the world to civilise barbarians. (white man’s burden)
Industrialism led to the emergence of a large and increasingly organised working class, which demanded social, economic, and political reform.
To reduce the threat, governments portrayed overseas expansion as beneficial to everybody.
The instability of the Egyptian government threatened new trading routes so in 1882 Britain took over the administration of Egypt and established a port in the Cape colony through the Suez Canal.
The period from 1871 to 1914 witnessed a new wave of ‘New Imperialism’. There were 3 main characteristics to this ‘New Imperialism’.
Geographic scope/pace: Whereas the previous imperialism was largely focused on North and South America, New Imperialism centered on Africa and Asia. This could credited to the Scottish missionary, David Livingstone, who discovered the source of the Nile. Moreover, the crumbling Chinese Empire offered opportunities to increase vital trade links with the Far East.
Maintaining peaceful relations: Although the rush to acquire new overseas possessions inevitably involved rivalry between European nations, there was a constant aim to prevent warfare. The Treaty of Berlin (1885), for example, laid down ground rules by which European nations should carry out their plans for expansion in Africa - a clear attempt to avoid confrontation
New imperial countries: Massive industrial growth led the USA to seek greater control over Central and South America, together with access to trading rights in Asia. Moreover, Japan wanted to seek greater power and influence within Asia.
This type of Imperialism wasn’t always possible and was only made possible by these two factors:
Medical advancement: In the late 18th century, Africa which had been known as the ‘White Mans Grave’ because of diseases such as Malaria. The medicine Quinine, discovered by French Scientists in 1817, was shown to be effective against Malaria. Now there were no more fears, the interior walls were falling and Asia and Africa became more accessible to Europeans.
Technological advancement: The Industrial Revolution led to the introduction of new methods for producing iron and steel both cheaply and in large quantities. This facilitated developments in railways and steamships, which made transport quicker and safer, which also made it easier to navigate rivers such as the Congo, the Zambezi and the Niger. Additionally, Development in weapons, artillery, and machine guns gave Europeans advantages over under-developed African Societies, for example the Matabelle War (1893)
By 1820, most European governments had banned the slave trade, arguing that slavery was ‘repugnant to the principles of natural justice’
In the early 19th century scientists Johann Friedrich Blumenbach and Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau developed theories to say that white people were racially superior to other races. Other texts started implying that certain races were inferior, being less evolved and thus less human than others.
Europeans started to believe it was their duty to bring order, stability, and civilisation to the lives of ‘pagans’ Africans and Asians. The claim that European nations were gaining overseas possessions in order to improve the lives of the local people provided a convenient justification for actions that were, in reality, motivated by self-interest and characterised by exploitation.
In 1870 only 10% of Africa was under direct European control. Europeans didn’t know much about Africa, only that it seemed. to be mysterious, inhospitable, and dangerous. Soon as more exploration was happening, European fears of Africa reduced and in the last quarter of the 19th century there was a ‘scramble for Africa’.
Britain’s original concern had been to protect its vital Indian Ocean Trading Route. This is why they had mainly focused their Imperialism on Egypt and South Africa. The discovery of gold and diamonds as other valuable minerals in the Boer’s independent republic in the Transvaal alerted Britain of the opportunities of colonising other African countries.
They were determined to stop other countries from gaining these other mineral-rich areas for themselves. Therefore Britain took most of Southern and East Africa in the last 20 years of the 19th century. By 1900 Britain had Egypt, the Sudan, British East Africa (Kenya and Uganda), British Somaliland, Southern and Northern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), Bechuanaland (Botswana), Orange Free State and Transvaal (South Africa), Gambia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, British Gold Coast (Ghana), and Nyasaland (Malawi). By 1930, they controlled 30% of Africa.
France was more Focused on Eastern and Western Africa. They wanted to enhance Nationalism and wanted to gain resources. The desire for popular military success ended in the invasion of Algeria. Partly as a result of the Slave Trade they ended up controlling the coastal areas of Senegal. They ended up moving inland in search of timber and palm oil.
The decisions on Africa by the French ended up being heavily influenced by their loss in the Franco-Prussian war and the desire to prove themselves.
Belgium had only been independent since 1830, however, they were determined to enhance their country’s prestige and wealth by claiming the enormous Congo basin. King Leopold II saw enormous financial advantages by exploiting the Congo’s large quantities of raw rubber, a commodity much in demand in Europe.
They had already built long-standing contacts with the African African Coast during the first wave of exploration in the 16th century. Portugal extended its long-established claims to Angola and Mozambique.
Germany came late to the ‘Scramble Of Africa’ due to their late unification after the Franco-Prussian war. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to concentrate on national security by focusing on alliance-building and avoiding unnecessary rivalry with other countries. However, pressure from business-men, the Navy League, and the colonial expansion encouraged the public support of colonisation and forced them to change their policy and Germany ended up colonising Kamerun (now part of Cameroon and Nigeria), German East Africa (An area between Rwanda, Burundi, and most of Tanzania), German South-West Africa (Namibia), and Togoland (now divided between Togo and Ghana).
These colonies weren’t very profitable and cost more than they were worth.
Benefits of Imperialism on Africa | |
Education for Natives | Didn’t consider local Geography |
Water sanitation | African culture was undermined |
New transport system | African government was killed or exiled |
Developed states | Administrative Hierarchy |
Better farming | Changed African Economy |
Landownership change | |
Large scale exploitation |
While there was some opposition to ‘New Imperialism’, many people enthusiastically supported the colonisation their country was partaking in. The increase of nationalism characterised the late 19th century.
Even before ‘New Imperialism’, Britain already had a vast overseas empire, larger than any other European nation. The British people knew they had influence in other foreign lands and believed the empire was a symbol of power, prestige, and national pride.
It was compulsory in schools to teach and encourage national pride and loyalty. Moreover, newspapers were owned and controlled by rich pro-imperialists therefore they aimed to shape public opinion in favour of overseas expansion. Stories about mysterious foreign lands, and their strange inhabitant’s seen as ‘barbaric’, were hugely popular.
Popular literature such as Kim by Rudyard Kipling, justified British rule of India by saying the Indians were fortunate to have British rule over them. Others implied that the foreign lands were rightfully British and were “stolen”. In many ways, the positive aspects of Imperialism were stressed and the drawbacks were hidden. In 1807 when Britain banned slavery and carried out their ‘moral responsibility’ to free the slaves.
Although in Britain it was everyone who tried to boost nationalism, in France, it was mainly the government after the Franco-Prussian War. Patriotism was fostered through the introduction of a state education system. They were taught that they had a duty as their country, which was unique, superior to all others, and had both the right and the responsibility to spread its culture across the world.
French adopted the foreign policy of the ‘Mission Civisatrice’. The Roman Catholic Church stressed the civilising aspects of French imperialism in publications such as La Croix. This painted French imperialism in a positive light- it was helping people, not exploiting them. It was bringing Christianity, Civilisation, and French culture to people in distant lands whose customs included human sacrifice, slavery, and other forms of brutality.
They also tried to convince the public it was doing good for the economy.
Germany used to be reluctant to become involved in overseas expansion and they feared seeking overseas possessions would bring Germany into conflict with other European nations. Eventually, they joined the trend of colonisation. In addition, to the potential economic advantages that Germany might achieve, the German government was keen to use it to promote nationalism. Organisations such as the Colonial Society and the Navy League encouraged public support of Imperialism.
German missionaries justified this as ‘Bringing Christianity to heathen population.’ and also provided the government with information and connections that facilitated Germany’s acquisitions of new territories.
A number of religious leaders, intellectuals, and writers argued that it was morally wrong to seize control of the territory that rightly belonged to. the local inhabitants. For example, Heart of Darkness published by Joseph Conrad raised major issues about imperialism and racism.
Moreover, British economist John Hobson concluded a study by stating imperialism was not cost-effective and the lower class felt imperialism didn’t benefit them.
In the late 19th century, European nations were rivals, competing for raw materials, markets, trade, and territory. European governments were determined to protect their own rights and interests, to gain as much overseas territory as possible, and to defend their empires. Countries were willing to adopt aggressive foreign policies to preserve pride. Naturally, this led to many conflicts.
In 1898, a clash between the rival African ambitions of Britain and France almost led to war. While France was moving East to French West Africa, Britain was moving South to Cape. They crossed at Sudan and both claimed Sudan as their own.
As they were preparing for war, France realised they couldn’t take another war after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. The French prime minister told the French army to stand down and started negotiations
France ended up recognising British possession of Egypt and Sudan, while Britain formally acknowledged the French presence in Morocco
Most countries started to instigate an arms race to defend their countries as tensions in Europe started rising and countries wanted to be able to defend their Empires. This was evident after Kaiser Wilhelm II came into power in 1888 and embarked on the Weltpolitik policy, which involved actively seeking overseas possessions or as Kaiser Wilhelm called it, “A place in the sun” a jab at the common saying “the sun never sets on the British empire”.
Germany had been a bit late due to their late unification so their quest for Africa only added to existing tensions. Especially with Britain, specifically, the Naval Defence Programme that Germany later embarked on in 1906.
Due to the German Navy being focused on the North Sea, threatening Britain, a Naval arms race led to increased tensions between Britain and Germany.
Due to France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, France felt threatened by the Weltpolitik.
In 1904, Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale which settled the long-standing rivalry between Britain and France and their problems within the Fashoda Incident.
Germany felt threatened by this new alliance and decided to do something about it
In 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm made an aggressive speech in the city of Tangiers in Morocco for Moroccan independence leading to the first Moroccan crisis
Instead of creating a divide between the Entente Cordiale, it brought Britain and France closer at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.
In 1911, Kaiser Wilhelm sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir which led to the Agadir crisis also known as the second Moroccan crisis.
Britain sided with France and so Germany backed down instead of going to war
Although there were no wars from 1871-1914, European countries still wanted to expand, seize, and gain control of more territories and this was not done in a peaceful way and nor done without consequences.
For many years the Chinese considered themselves superior to other countries and they were convinced they had little to learn from foreigners, therefore this led to them being self-contained. However, in the 19th century, this proved to be terrible as they were incapable of adapting to the modernizing world around them. This started to show when the European countries started to force trade with China after the Industrial Revolution led to a need for raw materials. Very quickly, Britain started importing Opium to China which led the government to ban its importation, which was ignored by British merchants. This led to the First Opium War (1839-42) and the Second Opium War (1856) where Britain won and took control of Hong Kong and through the Treaty of Tientsin (1860) legalized opium trading into China and opened its ports. With these now-open ports, foreign traders established spheres of influence, railways, factories, and more, all ignoring China’s laws and policies. From 1850-64 The Taiping Rebellion happened and 20 million people died, this was taken down by the government with British and French help. The situation worsened after the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese war (1895-96) and the Open Door Policy.
The Chinese nationalists were angered by the government’s failure to prevent foreigners from gaining spheres of influence and this led to the Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901).
The Chinese government hesitantly supported this however were beaten by the 8-nation alliance after they invaded Peking. This forced China to pay 67 Million Euros over 39 years as compensation.
Britain took control of the Cape Colony after the Napoleonic Wars in 1814 and British immigration started in 1820. Soon Britain changed the economy, the national language, the tax system, and the original Dutch farmers were angry. Moreover, with the abolition of slavery in 1834, the Boers couldn’t rely on slave labor to maintain their farms. Many Boers left Cape Colony from 1835-1840 and moved east to what became known as the ‘Great Trek’, settling in Transvaal and The Orange Free State.
In 1877 the British tried to persuade Transvaal and the Orange Free State to join the Cape Colony in federations where Britain would take over the Republics which led to the First Boer War (1880-1881) where Britain failed. However, when there were more discoveries of gold in Transvaal led to the Jameson Raid in 1885 which failed. This led to Kaiser Wilhelm II sending a telegram congratulating the Boers.
In 1899, Kruger demanded the withdrawal of British troops in Transvaal, when Britain denied it, Kruger declared war. With the Boers's guerilla tactics and German-supplied arms, they got a lot of early victories, however, when Britain started their scorched earth strategies the British were finally able to win, however, there were 22 thousand dead from war, 30,000 died in concentration camps, and 200 million euros in the war cost this led many to condemn British actions in Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
Organised by Otto Van Bismark, it was meant to settle European conflicts over the ‘Scramble For Africa’
13 European Nations met between November 15th 1884-February 26th 1885
Led to free passage through the Niger and Congo rivers
Slavery being abolished throughout the African continent.
You had to claim land and tell other countries
conflicts had to be settled by negotiation rather than war
Japanese control over Port Arthur caused considerable alarm in Russia as not only did they want Port Arthur for themselves, but it also undermined the interest in the existing European nations.
Russia, France, and Germany all became the Triple Intervention and forced Japan to give Port Arthur back to China
In the first half of the 19th century, Japan was still an unmodernised country with an almost medieval social structure, the economy was still largely based on bartering rather than money, eg. taxes were paid in rice.
Out of fear of colonisation, Japan closed its borders to all foreigners which prevented japanese citizens from leaving. Russia, Britain and the USA all tried to open up trade with Japan and all failed. The USA was very desperate to gain trading rights for three main reasons
American commercial interests were pressuring the US government to open Japanese markets or their rapidly expanding industrial output.
The American whaling fleet needed access to Japanese ports in order to take vital supplies, especially coal.
In 1849, the USA sent a warship to Japan to rescue American sailors who had been shipwrecked off the Japanese coast. The Japanese were reluctant to let the ship into the port. The US was angered by the fact the sailors had ben harshly treated by the Japanese.
After Japan’s abstinence to trade, in 1853-1854 the USA sent a bunch f ships under the command of Commodore Perry, after Japan demanded the ships leave, America threatened violence
In 1854, Japan signed a treaty that allowed Japan to trade with America, in 1858 the Japanese signed another Treaty which allowed them to trade with foreign countries.
Japan was worried that they would be divided into smaller states by the foreign powers like China was going through so they decided to call off the current military Shogun and reinstated Emperor Meiji to start the reforms
The Meiji reforms started in 1867 and allowed Japan to establish a central administration, uniting all the independent regions of Japan and a new constitution based on the German model by 1869. Moreover, Japan modeled its education system, form of government, army, navy, and industry on those of the foreign powers they feared. Some were established by the government and then handed over to private enterprises.
To cover the costs of rapid modernisation, Japan concentrated on promoting its export trade, especially in textiles. Moreover, compulsory military service for all adult males was implemented in 1894.
Modernisation allowed for Japan to maintain its independence. Soon, Japan realised it possessed limited natural resources, so it started to look for overseas possessions in order to gain what it lacked. The disintegration of China allowed Japan to test its military strength.
In 1894, Japan quickly took over Manchuria, Korea and more parts of China. Soon China was forced to sign the Treaty Of Shimonoseki 1895 and China was forced to give over Korea and Port Arthur. Russia felt threatened by Japan as China was their warm water port. This led to the ‘Triple Intervention’ Where Japan was forced to give back Port Arthur.
By 1900, Russia occupied the entire Manchuria and it was obvious they wanted to seize Korea. Japan saw this as a serious threat. At the same time, Russian expansion in China threatened the British commercial interests in China and they quickly realised they had to quit ‘splendid isolationism’
During 1901 negotiations between Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne of Britain and Hayashi Tadasu of Japan started their negotiations. They soon agreed in 1902 that Britain and Japan would not get involved if it was a 1v1 war against another country, however as soon as it became larger, thy would join.
As Russia started to move further up to China reaching Korea, Japan tried to negotiate but Russia wanted war as they believed they were superior to Japan.
In 1904, Japan destroyed two warships and pushed Russia all the way back to Mukden. At this time Japan also gained control of the nearby seas which meant that Russia had to go around Europe to reach China instead. As Britain had control of the Suez Canal, they refused Russian entry which made their trip longer.
When Russia finally got to a face-off with Japan, they ended up losing to Japan’s more modernised ships.
The Treaty Of Portsmouth ended Russian influence in Manchuria and Kora was formally recognised as Japan’s property.
In less than 50 years, Japan was a modernised country. As Japan entered the 20th century, they were perceived as the champion of Asia against the Western powers. The Western powers started becoming weary of Japan in the Far East.
Respecting their alliance with Britain, Japan joined the First World War after declaring war on Germany and its primary role was to secure sea lanes of the South Pacific and the Indian Ocean against the German Navy. Japan took advantage of European absence in the Far East which led to-
Japan supplying the Far East region with goods the European countries no longer could provide. Japan’s export of cotton cloth increased threefold while its heavy industry expanded to fill the gap left by the absence of steel, iron, and chemicals from the Europeans.
A surge in exports, the merchant fleet almost doubled its size.
A boost in the Japanese shipbuilding industry, which was also boosted as Japan was supplying the allies with these ships.
Japan was able to expand its own interest in China without facing opposition from Western powers. After an ultimatum, Japan was able to give China 21 demands but after European intervention, those demands were lessened.
Japan provided a series of loans to China which increased Japans financial, commercial and economic influence over China.
The USA was a small nation at the start of the 19th century and their independence was only recently recognised. For. most of the 19th century the USA focused on internal issues as they had their own civil war (1861 to 1865) and they didn’t have any interest in international affairs which allowed for the isolationism policy.
Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803, Florida was taken from the Spanish in 1818 which led to America taking Texas in 1845 after Texas established themselves as an independent state in 1836 from the failing Mexico.The Treaty Of Oregon 1846 gave America even more land and after winning against Spain, the Treaty Of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) gave California, New Mexico, Nevada, and Arizona to the USA. In 1853 the USA purchased more land from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase and in 1867 America purchased Alaska from Russia.The Europeans saw America’s annexation of Texas being America bullying Mexico however America justified their actions through ‘manifest Destiny” which allowed them to
Justify American expansion to the Pacific Ocean as logical and inevitable
Make aggressive nationalism desirable
Prove America has a ‘Divine right’ to continue expanding west until it spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Justify America's duty to spread “Christian” values and culture.
Incoorporation in the USA would bring liberty and freedom to other North American territories.
This also led to the Monroe Doctrine where America promised to not interfere with European issues and vice versa.
