British North America

I. Introduction

The role of men and women in the American colonies
- They came as various groups:
- Servants
- Slaves
- Free farmers
- Religious refugees
- Powerful planters
Creation of new worlds led to the growth of settlements that monopolized resources and changed the land significantly.
Colonial societies developed in the 17th and 18th centuries with fluid labor arrangements.
Transition from flexible to rigid racial categories, leading to race-based chattel slavery which became central to the economy of the British Empire.
Initial perception of North America as a marginal part of the British Empire contrasted with its deep ties to Atlantic networks, connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Reverend Francis Le Jau's observations in Charles Town, Carolina (1706):
- Encounter with the harsh realities of American slavery
- Claims by planters that white servants were inefficient led to increased reliance on enslaved Africans.
- Le Jau's efforts to baptize and educate slaves were hindered by fears of their emancipation.

The 1660s marked a pivotal moment with new laws permitting lifelong enslavement of Africans, establishing a separate legal status for enslaved individuals.
Resulting strict racial barriers led to the perception of skin color as a fundamental division between people: white and black.
Captain Thomas Phillips' perspective on race:
- No intrinsic value in skin color; only profitability justified slavery.

Wars provided a means for colonists to enslave Native Americans, seen as more humane than execution.
Events such as the Pequot War (1636-1637) led to the sale of North American Indians into slavery.
Historical instances of enslavement during conflicts:
- Dutch enslaved Algonquians during Governor Kieft's War and Esopus Wars.
- Approximate estimates of Native Americans enslaved between 24,000 and 51,000 (1670-1715).

The Middle Passage as a brutal journey for enslaved Africans and a critical leg in the transatlantic slave trade.
Olaudah Equiano’s account revealed the horrors experienced during the Middle Passage:
- Poor ship conditions, diseases, fears of crews, and inadequate food.
Documentation of the stowage of the Brookes slave ship post-Regulated Slave Trade Act of 1788 detailed the horrific conditions endured by captives.

African influences in various aspects of American culture today, including food, music, and language.
- Notable food imports include cassava.
- Musical influences manifest in spirituals and other music forms.

Historical context of religious conflicts: Catholic vs. Protestant monarchs vying for control.
- Transition into a civil war ignited by political and economic disputes between Charles I and Parliament.

The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell shifted the role of colonies.
The colonies reacted differently based on their ties to the Crown vs. Parliament.

Tensions between wealthy planters and poorer settlers, fueled by conflict with Native Americans.
- Triggered by a pig dispute that escalated into violence and retaliatory cycles.
- Virginia's Governor Berkeley's cautious approach sparked further unrest among settlers.

Bacon ultimately died, leading to the execution of key rebel leaders by Berkeley, demonstrating the fragility of colonial stability.
The rebellion resulted in the increased adoption of slavery in tobacco cultivation post-conflict due to the need for a reliable labor source.

Pueblos in New Mexico revolted against Spanish oppressors in 1680, leading to significant resistance and destruction of Spanish rule.
The Yamasee War in Carolina demonstrated the intense conflict between Native Americans and settlers, resulting in heavy fighting but eventual stabilization of trade relations.

William Penn's approach to Native American relations emphasized peaceful negotiations and purchasing land rather than violence.
This policy led to relative peace initially but eroded with increased land demand, culminating in the Walking Purchase of 1737, altering Pennsylvania's dynamics with Indigenous peoples.