Liberalism

Liberalism

• Liberalism focuses on freedom and the role of the individual.

Core Tenets of Liberalism

• Liberalism considers aspects of:
  • Society.
  • Human Nature.
  • Economy.
  • The State / Government.

History of Liberalism

• The roots of liberalism can be traced back to the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Informed by:
  • The Reformation, which rejected traditional religious teachings.
  • The English Civil War, which saw the monarchy overthrown.
• Liberalism rejected:
  • The idea of the Divine Right of Kings.
• Liberalism encouraged:
  • The importance of the individual.
• Liberals believe:
  • All humans are born free and equal with ‘natural rights’.
  • Decisions should be based on reason and logic, not faith.

Key Thinkers

• Key Thinker #1: John Locke
  • Often seen as the ‘father of liberalism’.
  • Key Text: ‘Two Treatises of Government’ (1690)
  • Classic Liberal
  • Rejected medieval views on monarchy and religion as he wrote in the aftermath of the English Reformation and English Civil War.
  • Took an optimistic view on human nature and believed in natural rights.
  • Believed in a limited government and a social contract between the state and its citizens.
• Key Thinker #2: Mary Wollstonecraft
  • Key Text: ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ (1792)
  • Classic Liberal
  • Developed the ideas of Locke to apply them to women as well as men.
  • She believed that women had been infantilized by society and were denied their natural rights.
  • She supported both the American and French revolution as she saw these as in line with liberal thought.
• Key Thinker #3: John Stuart Mill
  • Key Text: ‘On Liberty’ (1859)
  • Classic Liberal
  • Believed in ‘negative liberty’ to allow students to empower themselves.
  • Believed in tolerance and put forward the ‘harm principle’.
  • He saw human nature as always progressing and this is facilitated through better education.
  • He was also worried that if uneducated people got the vote it would lead to a ‘tyranny of the majority’.
• Key Thinker #4: Thomas Hill Green
  • Seen as one of the fathers of modern liberalism
  • Key Text: ‘Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation’ (1895)
  • He wrote in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution and that socio-economic factors influenced their thinking and actions.
  • Believed in ‘positive liberty’.
  • Saw human beings as motivated by the common good.
• Key Thinker #5: John Rawls
  • Seen as the most important modern liberal thinker in the 20th century.
  • Key Text: ‘A Theory of Justice’ (1971)
  • Established the ‘Original Position’ thought experiment and the ‘Veil of Ignorance’.
  • Advocated for an enabling state which looked after the most unfortunate in society.
  • He also supported inequality of outcomes in capitalism as this was the society most people would want to live in.
• Key Thinker #6: Betty Friedan
  • Modern liberal and Feminist
  • Key Text: ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963)
  • Argued that society had become chauvinistic, and this limited the ability of women to pursue their own interests.
  • Advocated for the state to pass legislation to promote tolerance so that it becomes ‘psychologically embedded’.

Human Nature

• 'Egotistical'
  • Some liberal thinkers view humans as behaving in an egotistical way who are driven by self-interest as individuals.
  • Locke described these as ‘natural rights’ as every individual has the right to:
    • ‘Self-Realisation’ (free from constraints to discover their true selves)
    • ‘Self-Determination’ (Our own efforts mean we are the masters of our fates and therefore our achievements are truly our own)
    • ‘Self-Fulfilment’ (free to make the most of our individual talents)
    • These natural rights are shown in the US Declaration of Independence (1776)
      • "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."
  • Wollstonecraft believed that these natural rights applied to both men and women, and Friedan believed that human nature has evolved in such a way that these natural rights have been denied to women.
• 'Rational'
  • Liberal thinkers believe that whilst human beings may be egotistical, they must also act rational to avoid conflict between people.
  • Both Locke and Mill believed that humans should be considerate of others and guided by reason and not emotion.
  • Rawls viewed individuals as rational beings capable of making decisions based on principles of justice and fairness.
  • In his Theory of Justice, he assumes that people are not only capable of acting in their self-interest but are also capable of recognizing the plight of others.
  • Green who wrote in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution believed that whilst human beings are mostly guided by reason but also affected by social and economic circumstances which makes them more empathetic and open to compromise.
• 'Progressive'
  • Liberals also believe that human nature is progressive and not set in stone.
  • Most liberal thinkers agree that the best way for humans to progress is through better education.
  • This is put forward by Mill who wished to focus on what individuals could become and this was why he had such a focus on education.
  • He believed that if humans have a better knowledge of the world around them then they can act in a more rational way.
  • This idea is sometimes known as developmental individualism or individuality.
• 'Optimistic'
  • All liberal thinkers have a naturally optimistic view on human nature.
  • This began with the writings of Locke who rejected the biblical idea of ‘original sin’ that humans are fundamentally flawed.
  • This also aligns with the progressive view that human beings are constantly moving forward and able to adapt and find solutions to the problems of the day.
  • This was shown through Obama’s 2008 presidential election slogan ‘Yes We Can!’

Society

• 'Natural'
  • Locke argued that just as humans have natural rights, that society itself is natural.
  • It has always existed and does not require a state or government to create it, in this sense society predates the state.
  • This also links back to the idea that human beings are rational and have ‘natural rights’.
  • A society is natural because there are:
    • Natural Laws (that natural rights should not be infringed)
    • Natural Justice (if natural rights are infringed on then there should be some compensation).
• 'Individualistic'
  • This liberal view on society links back to the idea of human nature as egotistical.
  • Many liberals believe that society should involve the maximum number of individuals should be able to pursue their own self-realization.
  • Mill argued that it was the role of governments to remove as many barriers as possible to allow the creation of individualistic society.
  • Mill argued that individuals should resist ‘dull conformity’ and ‘suffocating convention’.
  • Both Wollstonecraft and Friedan argued during their times that women as individuals were being held back and that their natural rights were being infringed.
  • This is because they chose to focus on underrepresented individuals in society.
  • Wollstonecraft argued women were infantilized as they could not own property.
  • Friedan argued society was chauvinistic and many women were complicit by fulfilling stereotypical roles.
  • An extreme view of an individualistic society is atomism which claims society does not exist and is a collection of self-interested individuals. This forms part of neo-liberalism.
• 'Tolerant'
  • All liberals believe that society should be tolerant of all people and their views.
  • “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it”.
  • Mill argued that all opinions and actions should be tolerated if they do not violate the ‘harm principle’.
    • This principle essentially means that individuals in a society should be free to do or say anything they want so long as it does not infringe on the liberty of another individual.
  • Green had a view that society was tolerant but that individuals do not do this on their own.
  • In fact, he argued that individuals would be drawn towards a society that would accept them; this is particularly true of individuals from minority or individual groups.
  • Green rejected the idea of society being a group of self-interested individuals and that people were focussed on the common good of all individuals.
• 'Veil of Ignorance'
  • Rawls argued that rational individuals would choose a society where the poorest individuals fared significantly better.
  • He also believed that if individuals were creating society from scratch, then they would create a society that was superior to the one they were living in.
  • (This comes from his exercise known as the ‘original position’ which links to his view that humans are rational by nature).
  • Rawls argued that the way this society would be achieved would be achieved through a veil of ignorance whereby individuals would have no knowledge of their place in society in terms of socio-economic background, talents, gender or ethnicity.

Economy

• Economic Liberalism
  • All liberal thinkers view the ownership of private property as essential; this is the core foundation of economic liberalism which fully supports the capitalist system.
  • Locke believed ownership of private property one of the ‘natural rights’ that should be defended.
    • He believed that like society the ownership of property predates the state, and the more property owned then the more protected one is from oppression.
  • Mill argued that the ownership of property is what made individuals an individual as was the main driving vehicle towards ‘self-determination’ and ‘self-fulfillment’.
• 'Laissez-Faire'
  • Liberals optimistic view of human nature means that they support the existence of a capitalist economy.
  • Their thinking is most notably influenced by the writing of the economist Adam Smith in books such as ‘The Wealth of Nations’.
  • Smith argued for limited government interference in the economy which is known as ‘laissez-faire’ (leave it be).
  • He advocated for a free market where individuals have freedom of choice who they buy from, businesses have freedom to produce what they want and workers have the freedom to choose their employer.
  • This economic ideology was supported by many neo-liberals in the 20th century such as Margaret Thatcher and there is still a right-wing economic pressure group in the UK today called the Adam Smith Institute.
• Inequality of Capitalism
  • Capitalism as an economic system produces an inequality of outcomes but this is supported by most liberal thinkers.
  • Mill argued that inequality of outcomes allows for meritocracy in society as rewards are based on an individual's efforts or actions.
  • Rawls argued that inequality of outcomes could only work if there was an equality of opportunity, thus meaning that the poorest are helped so that there was a level playing field.
    • This also supports his view of humans as rational individuals because this is the society that most people would want to live in.

The State

• Rejection of Anarchism and Monarchy
  • Although thinkers like Locke believe that a natural society predates a state it does not means that they support anarchism (the absence of a state).
  • Locke argued that states exist to be a vehicle for self-fulfillment, self- realization and self-determination.
  • He said “Where there are no laws, there is no freedom”.
  • Liberals also reject monarchy, particularly the idea of the Divine Right of Kings.
    • This is influenced by the time they were writing in. Locke wrote in the aftermath of the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution.
  • He called the idea of monarchy “morally and intellectually illegitimate”
  • Wollstonecraft caused controversy in Britain when she outwardly supported the French Revolution and the monarchy being replaced by a Republican government.
• 'Government by Consent'
  • Locke described the relationship between the state and the people as a government by consent.
    • This ultimately means that individuals are citizens NOT subjects.
  • Thomas Jefferson was influenced by this when he said, “Government should always be the servant, not the master of the people”.
  • Locke outlined what he called the social contract between the government and the people.
    • This is a relationship by which the government agrees to offer advantages and outcomes to the people to pursue their natural rights and the people as individuals are entitled to end this contract if they are not able to do so.
  • Locke went further when outlining Fiduciary Government.
    • The essence of which is that if the state betrayed the trust that the people had placed in them when they established the government, the people could resist the regime and set up a new government.
• Equality of Opportunity
  • Liberal thinkers see the main objective of the state is to improve the natural rights of individuals.
  • Rawls called this ‘state sponsored individualism’ with the state allowing individuals to enjoy their natural rights easier.
  • Thinkers like Rawls and Green believe that for natural rights to be enjoyed and improved there must first be an equality of opportunity.
    • They also agreed that the state must take an active role in ensuring there is equality of opportunity.
  • Rawls, however, also supported an equality of outcomes as he thought this was desirable and linked to his idea of this being the meritocratic society that most rational individuals want to live in.
• Promotion of Tolerance
  • Many liberal thinkers see the state as taking an important and active role in promoting tolerance with a society.
    • This links to the idea of foundational equality, namely that all individuals are born equal and deserve equal treatment by the state.
  • Mill thought the best by to do this was through better education.
  • Green also thought that the state should ensure that there was universal education which would lead to both equality of opportunity and a more tolerant society.
  • Friedan thought the state should take an active role in outlawing intolerance particularly towards women and African Americans in 1960s USA.
    • She believed that through legislation a tolerant society would be ‘psychologically embedded’.
• Limited State & Fragmented State
  • Liberal thinkers support the idea of the state being limited and fragmented.
  • This is seen through the system of checks and balances in ‘liberal democracies’ such as the USA and UK.
  • Again, this links back to the birth of liberalism in the aftermath of the Reformation and diminishing power of absolute monarchy.
  • Locke argued that states should be ‘fragmented and scattered’.
  • Wollstonecraft argued in support of republican governments with constitutions that protected citizens rights.
    • In particular, she argued that the rights of men and women should be equal as citizens.
  • Wollstonecraft’s support for the French Revolution was notorious and was part of the ‘Revolution Controversy’.
• Representative State
  • As part of the idea of ‘government by consent’, liberal thinkers support the idea of individuals electing representatives to advocate for their rights on their behalf.
  • Friedan argued that these representatives should not merely ‘look after’ the people (paternalism) instead citizens should demand that the state represent their interests.
  • Again, Freidan was writing at time of the civil rights campaign and the growing feminism movement.

Classic Liberalism

• Revolutionary Implications
  • Early or Classic liberal thinkers such as Locke and Wollstonecraft were considered revolutionary for their rejecting of monarchy.
  • Locke wrote in the aftermath of the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution and his writings inspired the American Revolution.
    • His idea of fiduciary government can also be seen as advocating revolution if the social contract is broken by the state.
  • Wollstonecraft held the view that both men and women had natural rights which was considered revolutionary at the time.
    • She was also an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution which was controversial in Britain.
• 'Negative Liberty'
  • By focusing on the individual and removing barriers to ‘self- determination’, classic liberal believe in a concept known as ‘negative liberty’.
  • Mill first came up with this concept which means giving individuals freedom to determine their own destiny.
    • This means individuals being free from government interference and the state removing any obstacles such as high taxation and regulation.
  • Mill proposed a night watchman state that would not infringe on individual freedoms but would still be effective as a government.
  • This view was later taken up by neo-liberal politicians such as Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan with the latter stating ‘government is not the solution to the problem; government is the problem’.
• Minimal Government
  • Classic liberals also believe that there should be limits to the governments power.
  • This is chiefly seen through a system of checks and balances, most notably seen in the US Constitution.
  • Thomas Jefferson, one of the founding fathers, said ‘the government which governs best is that which governs least’.
    • This idea works hand in hand with the concept of negative liberty.
  • Wollstonecraft viewed the idea of government help as condescending to the individual stating “it is justice, not charity, that is wanting in the world”.
• 'Laissez-Faire'
  • Liberals optimistic view of human nature means that they support the existence of a capitalist economy.
  • Their thinking is most notably influenced by the writing of the economist Adam Smith in books such as ‘The Wealth of Nations’.
  • Smith argued for limited government interference in the economy which is known as ‘laissez-faire’ (leave it be).
  • He advocated for a free market where individuals have freedom of choice who they buy from, businesses have freedom to produce what they want and workers have the freedom to choose their employer.
  • This economic ideology was supported by many neo-liberals in the 20th century such as Margaret Thatcher and there is still a right-wing economic pressure group in the UK today called the Adam Smith Institute.
• Ambivalent about Democracy
  • Given that classic liberal thinkers were writing in a mostly pre-industrial age, there views on democracy and suffrage can be seen as ambivalent.
  • Locke believed that suffrage should be limited to property owners due to his belief in the fundamental importance of this ‘natural right’.
  • Whilst Mill believed that democracy could be used as a political education to help individuals progress as human beings.
    • However, he still believed that education should come before suffrage.

Modern Liberalism

• 'Positive Liberty'
  • Green was one of the first liberal thinkers to argue against the concept of ‘negative liberty’.
  • He, along with other modern liberal thinkers, argued that individuals often need to be helped in the pursuit of their own self-fulfillment.
    • This has become known as positive liberty or positive freedom.
  • However, unlike socialists who argue for a big government, Green and others believe that individuals should be empowered to help themselves.
• Enabling State
  • Modern liberal thinkers believe that only more government will allow individuals to empower themselves.
  • Rawls argued that an enabling state was essential if there was going to be equality of opportunity in society.
    • This is achieved through more laws, more government spending and more taxation.
  • Rawls also argued that more progressive taxation is acceptable as human beings being rational will be willing to sacrifice more if they have more.
• Keynesian Capitalism
  • Modern liberals reject the traditional view of a ‘laissez-faire’ economy.
  • Thinkers such as Rawls supported the economic thinking of John Maynard Keynes as this allowed for an enabling state.
    • Keynes argued that more rather than less government intervention in the economy was what was needed; this usual takes the form of ‘tax and spend’.
  • The government should chiefly ensure that there is full employment and liberal thinkers support this as they see unemployment as limiting an individuals potential.
• Liberal Democracy
  • Whilst classic liberal thinkers were ambivalent about democracy and universal suffrage, this is not the case for modern liberals.
  • Modern liberals support the idea of universal suffrage.
  • Green made this argument saying “if the state is to do more for its people, then the state must do more to secure their consent”
  • In the aftermath of Green’s writing it was a Liberal Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, who oversaw the extension of the franchise to women in 1918.
• Social Liberalism
  • Modern liberal thinkers stress the importance of promoting tolerance in society, this approach has become known as social liberalism.
  • In the 20th century this has taken the form of promoting more tolerance around racial and sexual matters.
  • Friedan argued that women and ethnic minorities had been excluded from society and reaching their full potential.
    • She argued that the state must take an active role through legislation to correct this.
  • This eventually took shape with the Civil Rights Act (1964) passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson.
  • Freidan that this sort of legislation was corrective as it reset the natural rights of all individuals by providing an equality of opportunity.
    • This types of legislation which focusses solely on these groups has become known as positive discrimination.

Classic vs Modern Liberalism

• Classic Liberalism:
  • Optimistic view of Human Nature
  • Focus on the individual
  • Limited State
  • ‘Negative Liberty’
  • ‘Minimal State’
  • ‘Laissez-Faire’ economics
  • Ambivalent about democracy
  • Taxation should be limited
• Modern Liberalism:
  • Concerned about minority rights
  • Government by consent
  • ‘Positive Liberty’
  • ‘Enabling State’
  • Keynesian economics
  • Universal Suffrage
  • Progressive Taxation

Liberalism in Action

• Declaration of Independence
• Checks and Balances
• Beveridge Report
• Civil Rights legislation of 1960s
• Obamacare
• Post 9/11 and COVID restrictions on liberties

Is Liberalism Compatible with Democracy?

• Yes:
  • Liberals believe in self-determination; democracy allows for individuals to decide their governments through electing representatives.
  • Liberals support ‘government by consent’
  • Checks and balances and separation of powers ensures that elected governments to not become over mighty like absolute monarchies which liberals reject.
  • Liberals view humans as behaving rationally so are able to make sensible decisions during elections.
  • Thinkers such as Rawls and Friedan supported universal suffrage.
• No:
  • Locke believed the vote should only be given to property owns as universal suffrage could threaten this ‘natural right’.
  • Mill believed the vote should only be given to those who had a proper education.
  • Democracy often only reflects the view of the majority meaning the rights of minorities can be ignored. Mill called this the ‘tyranny of the majority’.
  • Natural rights are non-negotiable and apply to all individuals so should not be affected by election results.
  • Liberals believe in government being limited by undemocratic institutes such as Supreme Courts.

Key Liberal Thinkers and Their Views