SA

Period 2 Overview: Absolutism to Napoleonic Era (1550-1815)

Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism (1550-1750)

  • Centralization of Nation-States: European monarchs sought to consolidate power and establish centralized control within their territories.
  • Sovereignty and Justification:
    • Divine Right: Monarchs claimed their authority came directly from God (e.g., Jacques Bossuet).
    • Social Contract: Philosophers argued that government legitimacy derived from the consent of the governed (e.g., John Locke, Thomas Hobbes).
  • Key Figures: Louis XIV of France, the Fredericks of Prussia, Peter the Great of Russia.
  • Examples of Constitutionalism: English Civil War, Dutch Republic, Polish Monarchy (weak).

Old Regime Society (1700s)

  • Tradition, Hierarchy, and Privilege: Society was structured based on land ownership, tradition, and inherited privileges.
  • Group Rights, Not Individual Rights: Rights were tied to social groups rather than individuals.
  • Peasants/Serfdom: Characterized by dependency, exploitation, and vulnerability, particularly in Eastern Europe.
  • Family Economy: The family served as the primary unit of production and consumption.

Agricultural and 1st Industrial Revolutions (1600-1800)

  • Agricultural Innovations: Increased crop yields and reduced the need for farm labor.
  • Cottage Industry: A system of textile production where merchants provided raw materials to rural families who produced goods in their homes; the mechanization of labor.
  • Urbanization: Population shift from rural to urban areas due to increased employment opportunities.

18th Century Economy and Trade Wars (1700s)

  • Mercantile Empires: European powers established colonial empires to control trade and resources.
  • Trade Rivalries: Competition among European powers for dominance in global trade, including slavery.
  • Slavery: Played a significant role in plantation economies, particularly in the Americas.
  • Conflicts: Seven Years' War, American Revolution, stemming from mercantile rivalries.

Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism (1700-1800)

  • Influence of the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance: Intellectual movements that emphasized reason and observation.
  • Age of Reason: The application of reason to religion, politics, economics, and society.
  • Print Culture: The spread of ideas through books, pamphlets, and newspapers.
  • Enlightened Despots: Monarchs in Russia, Prussia, and Austria who adopted some Enlightenment ideals.

French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)

  • Causes: Long-term social, economic, and political tensions, as well as short-term financial crises.
  • Stages: Liberal, radical, and reactionary phases marked by different political factions and events.
  • Failure of the Directory: Ineffective government that paved the way for Napoleon's rise.
  • Napoleon's Reforms: Legal, educational, and economic changes implemented during his rule.
  • Wars of Expansion: Napoleon's military campaigns across Europe.
  • Failures and Fall: Continental System, invasion of Russia, defeat at Waterloo.

Sovereignty and Nation-States

  • Absolutism:
    • Sovereignty resides solely in the monarch.
    • Mercantilism and taxation by decree.
    • Limited power for representative bodies, the church, nobles and universities.
    • Reliance on war and standing armies.
  • Constitutionalism:
    • Sovereignty derived from the people.
    • Limited government power.
    • Taxation by consent.
    • Representative bodies control finances.
  • East vs. West Differences: Absolutism more prevalent in Eastern Europe.
  • Examples:
    • Absolutism: France (Louis XIV), Prussia, Austria, Russia.
    • Constitutionalism: Poland, Dutch Republic, United Kingdom.

Philosophers

  • Absolutism:
    • Jacques Bossuet: Divine Right theory.
    • Thomas Hobbes: Advocated for a strong central authority.
  • Constitutionalism:
    • John Locke: Emphasized natural rights and limited government.

Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)

  • Absolutist Ruler: Embodied the concept of absolute monarchy.
  • Quote: “L’état c’est moi” – I am the state.
  • Divine Right Theory: Believed his authority came directly from God.
  • Sun King: Used symbolism to enhance his image.
  • Policy: One King, One Law, One Faith.
  • Versailles: Lavish palace that served as a symbol of his power.
  • Sword vs. Robe Nobles: Distinctions and tensions within the nobility.
  • Mercantilism and Bullionism: Jean-Baptiste Colbert's economic policies.
  • Wars and Large Standing Army: Frequent military campaigns and a large military.
  • Successes and Economic Distress: Achievements alongside financial challenges.
  • Bankruptcy and Debt: Financial difficulties due to wars and spending.
  • Treaty of Utrecht: Ended the War of Spanish Succession, establishing a balance of power.

Eastern Absolutism

  • Threat of War: Constant threat from European and Asian invaders led to consolidation of power.
  • Power Dynamics: Monarchs held power over nobility, but also power over peasants.
  • Permanent Taxes: Imposed without consent.
  • Standing Armies: Run by nobles.
  • West vs. East:
    • Nobility: Limited by the king in the West, powerful in the East.
    • Middle Class: Relatively strong in the West, weak in the East.
    • Peasants: Free in the West, serfdom in the East.

Absolutism in Prussia, Austria, and Russia

  • Prussia (Hohenzollern):
    • Strong military.
    • Industry and trade.
    • Religious tolerance.
    • Junkers (nobility): Traded political power for control over serfs for army and tax revenue.
  • Austria (Habsburgs):
    • Not a national state; diverse territories.
    • Leopold I, Charles VI, Maria Theresa.
  • Russia (Romanov):
    • Peter I (“the Great”): Westernization and modernization.
    • Threats from boyars and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
    • Quest for a warm-water port.
    • Built a strong army and navy.

Constitutionalism

  • Polish Monarchy: Weak, decentralized; elected monarchs shared power with the sejm (diet).
  • Dutch Republic:
    • Dutch Revolt vs. Spain.
    • Stadtholder vs. States General.
    • Religious toleration.
    • Urban consolidation and social mobility.
    • Commercial empire (trade, finance, agriculture).
    • Decline due to wars vs. England and France.

England: Contextualization

  • Magna Carta: Historical precedent for limited government.
  • Common Law: Legal system based on precedent.
  • Parliament: Representative body with increasing power.
  • Capitalism: Growing economic system.
  • Religious Divisions: Anglicanism vs. Catholicism vs. Puritans.
  • Elizabeth I (Tudor): Politique; Golden Age; more religious toleration.
  • James I (Stuart): Divine right beliefs.

English Civil War

  • Charles I: Conflict with Parliament.
  • Long Parliament: Challenged the king's authority.
  • Oliver Cromwell: Led the Parliamentarian forces.
  • Restoration: Charles II - “Merry Monarch."
  • James II: Catholic beliefs led to conflict.
  • Glorious Revolution: William and Mary invited to rule.
  • English Bill of Rights: Established constitutional limits on royal power.

Old Regime Society

*Land = power, continuation from feudalism.

  • Aristocratic Elites: Inherited privileges.
  • Established Churches: Associated with state and nobles.
  • Guilds: Urban labor organizations.
  • Rural Peasants/Serfs: Subject to high taxes and feudal dues.
  • Aristocratic Resurgence: Tension between monarchs and tradition.
  • Peasants/Serfs: Higher tax burden, especially in the East where landlords had more power.
  • Family Economy: Family served as the basic unit of production and consumption; side-by-side work; dependency; marriage = economic necessity; NW = nuclear family; East = extended family.

Agricultural Revolution

  • Innovations: 3-4 field crop rotation, drainage, new crops, fertilizers, seed drill, selective breeding.
  • Enclosure Movement: Commercialization of agriculture.
  • Effects: More food production, population growth, end of commons, urbanization.

Industrial Revolution

  • Cottage Industry: Textile industry. Domestic, Putting-Out System.
  • Inventions: Spinning jenny, flying shuttle, water frame, steam engine, iron smelting.
  • Effects: Changes in work patterns. Wage-labor system + unskilled labor. Gender divisions + women outside home. Urbanization. Sanitation, housing, segregation. Urban riots. Consumer Revolution. Disposable income. Marketing, fashion, consumer goods.

18th Century Economy

  • Mercantilism: Government controlled trade and economy. Gold + silver, balance of trade, tariffs.
  • Slavery: Triangular Trade/Atlantic Slave Trade. Plantation-based economies: sugar, tobacco, cotton. Racism, superiority, exploitation.
    *Early Spanish + Portuguese domination.
    *Atlantic States (France, England, Netherlands). Trade rivalries wars.

Mid 18th Century Wars

  • Austrian Succession: France + Prussia vs. Austria + Britain. Stalemate return basically everything.
  • Diplomatic Revolution (1756): Realignment: France + Austria vs. Prussia + Britain.
  • Seven Years’ War: Europe, India, North America (WWI??). Mainly French vs. British rivalry. Britain = winner (but massive debt).
  • American Revolution: Taxation without representation (to pay war debts). Locke and natural rights/right to rebel. France joins colonies vs. British.

Enlightenment

  • Who: Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, Beccaria, Smith, Wollstonecraft, Kant and Hume (skeptics).
  • What: Awakened to the problems of times serious proposals to solve them using reason – political, social, economic, religious
    *Values: reason, science, progress, liberty, toleration, sovereignty, equality, individual freedom
  • When: 1650-1800.
  • Where: Western Europe.
  • Why: Sci. Rev. Newtonian worldview (mechanistic, ruled by series of laws) → are there natural laws that dictate humanity?
  • How: Print culture, salons, coffeehouses.

Enlightened Absolutists

Eastern and central Europe; top-down approach to reform; (limited) religious toleration; streamlined legal codes; increased access to education; reduction of torture

  • Catherine II (Russia): Patron of the arts, imported western culture, limited religious toleration + education, more severe serfdom (Pugachev Rebellion), only nobles benefited
  • Frederick II (Prussia): Religious toleration, freed serfs on crown lands, promotion through merit, encouraged immigration, agriculture, industry
  • Joseph II (Austria): Abolished serfdom and feudal dues, freedom of religion, civic rights, press, Justice system, schools, hospitals, orphanages


French Revolution

  • Absolute Monarchy to Constitutional Monarchy (Age of Montesquieu)
    *Estates General: 1789
    *National Assembly: 1789-1791
    *Legislative Assembly: 1791-1793
    *Old Regime Society met with new Enlightenment ideas
    *Financial Crisis - famines, taxes, war debts
    *Estates-General called; Third Estate angry!
    *Tennis Court Oath
    *Storming of the Bastille
    *Women’s March on Versailles
    *Declaration of the Rights of Man
    *Jacobins and Robespierre
    *Constitutional monarchy established (1791)
    *Jacobins vs. Girondins (radicals vs. moderates)
    *War - Austria and Prussia vs. France - Georges Danton encourages fighting
    *September Massacres, inspired by Marat

  • Republic (Age of Rousseau)
    *National Convention: 1792-1795
    *The Directory: 1795-1799
    *Creation of the Republic
    *Execution of Louis XVI
    *Committee of Public Safety
    *De-Christianization under Hebert; new calendar made
    *Reign of Terror
    *Thermidorian Reaction → Robespierre executed
    *Ruling bourgeoisie vs. aristocracy and sans- culottes
    *Royalist Rebellion
    *Catholic Revival
    *Gender inequality
    *Critics of the Revolution (Edmund Burke and conservatives)
    *Coup d’etat → NapolĂ©on!

  • Causes:

    • Long-Term: Expensive wars. Breakdown of the old order. Estates system + taxation. Enlightenment ideas.
    • Immediate: Financial crisis/ bankruptcy. Estates General Meeting. Abbe Sieyes – What is the Third Estate? - manifesto

  • Liberal Stage:
    *National Assembly
    *Tennis Court Oath Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
    *Storming of the Bastille
    *Women’s March
    *Louis XVI signs Decl. of Rights of Man
    *Royals from Versailles to Tuileries
    *Civil Constitution of the Clergy
    *Constitution of 1791
    *Flight to Varennes
    *Louis and family flee
    *Caught and returned to Paris

  • Radical Stage:
    *National Assembly replaced by Legislative Assembly
    *Jacobins and Girondins
    *Overthrow constitutional monarchy republic
    *War with Austria First Coalition alliance
    *Reign of Terror
    *Committee of Public Safety
    *Maximilien Robespierre – Republic of Virtue
    *De-Christianization and repression of women

  • Reactionary Stage:
    *Robespierre killed and Reign of Terror ended (Thermidorian Reaction)
    *Moderates bourgeoisie return to power
    *New constitutional regime
    *Directory
    *Catholic revival
    *Women – less freedom after 1795 than before 1789
    *Food shortages
    *Royalist rebellion (suppressed by Napoleon)

Napoleonic Era

  • Coup d'Ă©tat:
    *Abbe Sieyes + Napoleon overthrow Directory
    *1799: Constitution of the Year VIII
    *End of French Rev.
    *Universal male suffrage

    *3 Consuls, Napoleon 1st “consul for life” with supreme authority
    *Peace with foreign enemies + amnesty

  • Reforms:

    • Religion: Concordat of 1801 (renewed standing with Catholic Church but also practiced religious toleration), legal toleration, Christian calendar
    • Financial: Bank of France, stimulated economy
    • Legal: Napoleonic Code, 1804
    • Education: (lycees) + meritocracy

  • Napoleonic Wars:
    *Conquered most of Europe nationalism and resistance
    *Continental System (vs. Britain)
    *Failure in Russia

  • Napoleonic Wars, cont.:
    *Defeat 1814 abdication and exile to Elba
    *Restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy
    *Louis XVIII
    *Maintained most reforms, but legislature for the upper class only
    *Hundred Days
    *Napoleon’s return welcomed by people
    *Lost at Waterloo
    *Exile to St Helena