iran

Historical Background

Ancient Persia to 20th Century 

• Iran has one of the world’s oldest continuous state traditions, rooted in the Persian Empire, which created a strong, centralized, bureaucratic identity.

• Shi’a Islam became dominant in the 16th century under the Safavid Dynasty, linking religion and state in a way unique among the AP6 cases.

• The Qajar Dynasty (1794 - 1925) weakened Iran through corruption and concessions to foreign powers (Britain, Russia), setting the stage for political reform

Constitutional Revolution (1906)

• First attempt at limiting monarchical power

• Created

  • Majles (Parliament)

  • Constitution

  • Recognition of popular sovereignty 

 Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979)

• Reza Shah modernized/westernized aggressively:

  • Secularization

  • Expanding state bureaucracy

  • Infrastructure and education

• His son, Mohammad Reza Shah, strengthened authoritarianism:

  • SAVAK (secret police)

  • One-party rule

  • Clientelism 

• Modernization produced inequality, economic strain, and alienation of religious and lower-class groups

1979 Islamic Revolution

Causes

• Resentment toward:

  • Westernization without democratization

  • Authoritarian repression under the shah

  • Growing income inequality

  • Perceived moral decline

• Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini mobilized a broad coalition — clergy, merchants, students, leftists — around anti-imperialism and Islamic governance

Outcomes

• Establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran

• Creation of a hybrid system merging:

  • Theocracy (divine rule by clerics)

  • Republicanism (elections and constitution)

The Iranian Political System: A Hybrid Theocracy

Iran combines unelected religious oversight with elected institutions, producing asymmetrical power

1. Supreme Leader

• Most powerful office in Iran

• Serves for life; chosen by the Assembly of Experts

• Controls:

  • Military and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)

  • Judiciary 

  • State media

  • Appointment of key clerics

  • Veto power on major policy

2. Guardian Council

• 12 members (6 clerics appointed by Supreme Leader, 6 jurists approved by parliament)

• Major powers:

  • Vet candidates for president, Majles, Assembly of Experts

  • Review all legislation for compatibility with Islam and the constitution

• Effectively limits political pluralism

3. President

• Head of government 

• Elected by popular vote, but candidates must be approved by Guardian Council

• Manages budget, bureaucracy, economy, and implements laws

• Power is overshadowed by the Supreme Leader

4. Majles (parliament)

• Elected unicameral legislature

• Can pass laws, approve budget, summon ministers

• All decisions still subject to Guardian Council approval

5. Assembly of Experts

• Elected clerics who:

  • Select the Supreme Leader

  • Theoretically oversee his performance

• In practice, highly deferential 

6. Expediency Council

• Mediates disputes between Majles and Guardian Council

• Advises Supreme Leader

• Unelected and powerful

7. Judiciary

• Based on Sharia (Islamic law) and the constitution

• Lacks independence; overseen by Supreme Leader

8. Military and IRGC

• IRGC is a political, military, and economic powerhouse

• Controls major industries, energy, construction, and key strategic sectors

• Influences foreign policy and electoral outcomes

Society, Culture, and Political Participation

Religion

• Over 90% of Iran follows Shi’a Islam

• Clerical authority deeply shapes political legitimacy 

• Tension between young secular populations and religious elites

Ethnicity

• Major groups: Persians (majority), Azeris, Kurds, Arabs, Baluchis

• Some minorities demand more autonomy

Civil Society

• Often restricted; NGOs and activists face surveillance

• The 1999, 2009 (“Green Movement”), 2019, and 2022 (“Women, Life, Freedom” protests) show recurring dissatisfaction with authoritarianism

Economy

• State-dominated and heavily dependent on oil

• Sanctions, mismanagement, and corruption weaken development

• IRGC controls large segments of the economy

Role of Women

• Mandated hijab, divorce laws favor men, and unequal rights in family law

• Despite restrictions, women have high literacy and university enrollment

• Women’s activism is an ongoing source of political pressure

Political Culture and Ideology

Velayat-e Faqih (Rule of the Jurist)

• Khomeini’s doctrine: a senior cleric should rule as guardian of the people

• Philosophical basis for the Supreme Leader’s authority

Reformist vs. Conservative Divide

• Reformists: advocate political openings, civil rights, and limited liberalization within Islamic framework

• Conservatives: emphasize religious authority, anti-westernism, and moral regulation

• Elections often swing between these factions, but Guardian Council limits real competition

Elections and Political Parties

• Iran does not have strong, stable parties

• Instead, it has shifting alliances and factions

• Elections are competitive but not fully free, because: 

  • Candidates are routinely disqualified

  • Media is state-controlled

  • Results can be influenced by the IRGC

Public Policy

Economy

• Oil revenues drive the budget

• Sanctions heavily impact growth and welfare

• State subsidies and welfare networks maintain legitimacy

Foreign Policy

• Anti-american and anti-Israeli positioning

• Supports regional militias (Hezbollah, militias in Iraq/Syria/Yemen)

• Strategic goal: regional power and survival of the Islamic Republic

Nuclear Program

• Symbolism of nationalism, sovereignty, and power

• Western sanctions and international negotiations shape political outcomes domestically

Contemporary Issues and Challenges

1. Legitimacy Crisis

• Young population demands social freedoms and economic opportunities

• State repression increases distrust

2. Economic Problems

• Inflation, unemployment, sanctions, corruption, IRGC dominance

3. Social Tensions

• Hijab laws, gender restrictions, cultural conservatism vs. modern youth

4. Environmental Problems

• Water shortages, pollution, climate strain

5. Regime Stability

• Despite protests, regime maintains cohesion through:

  • Patronage networks

  • IRGC coercion

  • Religious authority 

  • Controlled elections