Exam 1

Exam Overview

• The exam will cover material from four chapters, with a focus on Chapter One.

• Discussion questions will include short answer questions from lab reports.

• Key topics covered will include anatomical position, characteristics of life, homeostasis, anatomy vs physiology, and cell structure.

Short Answer Questions

Anatomical Position

• Definition: Standing erect, arms at the sides, with palms facing forward, and feet positioned together.

• Importance: Provides a clear reference point for medical professionals to communicate effectively and avoid confusion when describing body parts and their relationships.

Importance of Learning Normal Anatomy and Physiology

• Reason: Understanding normal function is essential for identifying abnormalities or diseases. One must know what is normal to recognize what is not.

Key Concepts from Chapter One

Characteristics of Life

• Know the different characteristics, such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
  **Definitions of Key Biological Terms:**
  
  - **Growth:** The process of increasing in size and maturity, typically involving an increase in cell number and size.
  
  - **Reproduction:** The biological process by which new individual organisms are produced, ensuring the continuation of species.
  
  - **Metabolism:** The sum of all chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life, including the conversion of food to energy and the building of cellular structures.

• Expect questions requiring selection of statements that best describe these characteristics.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

• Homeostasis: The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Negative Feedback: The response of the body counteracts the change (e.g., body temp regulation).

• Positive Feedback: The response enhances the change (e.g., childbirth).

Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of body structure.

• Physiology: Study of body function.

• Understand various subtypes, including regional, systemic, and developmental anatomy.
  Anatomy can be divided into several subtypes that focus on different aspects of the body's structure:
  
  - **Regional Anatomy**: This subtype studies specific regions of the body, such as the head, neck, or limbs. It involves understanding the anatomical structures within a particular area and how they interrelate.
  
  - **Systemic Anatomy**: Systematic anatomy focuses on specific organ systems, such as the skeletal, muscular, or cardiovascular systems. It studies the structures and functions of these systems and how they work together to maintain the body's overall health.
  
  - **Developmental Anatomy**: This branch examines the changes in structure that occur from conception through maturity. It includes the study of embryonic development and how structures differentiate and develop as a person grows.

Levels of Organization

• Differentiate between cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
  ### Levels of Organization in Biological Systems
  - **Cells**: The basic unit of life, cells are the smallest structural and functional units of an organism. They perform essential biological processes.
  - **Tissues**: Groups of similar cells that work together to perform specific functions. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
  - **Organs**: Structures composed of two or more types of tissues that work together to perform specific functions. Examples include the heart, lungs, and liver.
  - **Organ Systems**: Groups of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose. For instance, the circulatory system includes the heart and blood vessels, which work to circulate blood throughout the body.

• Know the main organs in each body system and their functions.
  **Main Organs and Their Functions by Body System**:
  
  1. **Circulatory System**:
  - **Heart**: Pumps blood throughout the body.
  - **Blood Vessels**: Arteries, veins, and capillaries that transport blood.
  
  2. **Respiratory System**:
  - **Lungs**: Facilitate gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).
  - **Trachea**: The airway that connects the throat to the lungs.
  
  3. **Digestive System**:
  - **Stomach**: Breaks down food using acid and enzymes.
  - **Intestines**: Absorb nutrients (small intestine) and water (large intestine).
  - **Liver**: Processes nutrients and detoxifies substances.
  
  4. **Nervous System**:
  - **Brain**: Controls all body functions and processes information.
  - **Spinal Cord**: Transmits signals between the brain and the body.
  
  5. **Musculoskeletal System**:
  - **Bones**: Provide structure and support, protect organs.
  - **Muscles**: Allow for movement and stability of the body.
  
  6. **Endocrine System**:
  - **Glands (like pituitary, thyroid)**: Produce hormones regulating metabolism, growth, and mood.
  
  7. **Immune System**:
  - **Lymph Nodes**: Filter harmful substances and support immune responses.
  - **Spleen**: Filters blood and helps fight infections.
  
  8. **Urinary System**:
  - **Kidneys**: Filter blood to produce urine, removing waste.
  - **Bladder**: Stores urine until it is expelled.
  
  9. **Reproductive System**:
  - **Ovaries (female)**: Produce eggs and hormones (estrogen, progesterone).
  - **Testes (male)**: Produce sperm and hormones (testosterone).

Terminology and Body Cavities

• Familiarize yourself with directional terms (e.g., anterior, posterior, medial, lateral).
  Directional Terms:
  - **Anterior**: Refers to the front of the body or the position of a structure in front of another.
  - **Posterior**: Refers to the back of the body or the position of a structure behind another.
  - **Medial**: Indicates a position closer to the midline of the body or another structure.
  - **Lateral**: Refers to a position farther away from the midline of the body or another structure.

• Understand body cavities (e.g., cranial, thoracic, abdominal) and the organs contained within them.
  **Body Cavities**
  - **Cranial Cavity**: Contains the brain, protected by the skull.
  - **Thoracic Cavity**: Encloses the lungs and heart and is divided into pleural cavities (for each lung) and the mediastinum (which contains the heart, trachea, and esophagus).
  - **Abdominal Cavity**: Contains organs such as the stomach, intestines, liver, and kidneys, separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm.

Body Plans and Sections

• Know the definitions of the sagittal, transverse, and coronal planes and how they relate to anatomical sections.
  ### Anatomical Planes
  1. **Sagittal Plane**: A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right halves. This plane can be further categorized into:
  - **Midsagittal Plane**: The plane runs down the midline of the body, dividing it into equal left and right sides.
  - **Parasagittal Plane**: The plane runs parallel to the midsagittal plane but does not divide the body into equal halves.
  
  2. **Transverse Plane**: A horizontal plane that divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts. It is also known as the horizontal plane and can be used to create cross-sections of the body.
  
  3. **Coronal Plane**: Also known as the frontal plane, this vertical plane divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections. It runs perpendicular to both the sagittal and transverse planes.
  
  ### Relationship to Anatomical Sections
  Understanding these planes is crucial in anatomy as they provide reference points for describing locations and relationships between different body structures, facilitating clear communication among healthcare professionals.

Lab Components

Lab Imaging Questions

• Review images of epithelial tissues from previous labs and be able to identify specific structures (e.g., apical surface, nuclei).

• Understand how to find the lumen in tissue samples and relate it to functional characteristics.
  ### Lumen in Tissue Samples
  
  - **Definition**: The lumen refers to the inside space or cavity of a tubular structure or organ, such as blood vessels or parts of the digestive system.
  - **Finding the Lumen**: In tissue samples, the lumen can usually be identified by looking for hollow areas surrounded by tissue. These areas may contain substances such as air, blood, or food, depending on the type of tissue.
  - **Relation to Functional Characteristics**: The lumen plays a crucial role in the function of the organs it is part of. For instance, in the digestive tract, the size and shape of the lumen can affect the passage and digestion of food. In blood vessels, the lumen's diameter is significant for blood flow and pressure regulation.

Specific Lab Techniques

• Expect questions on identifying types of tissues, including distinguishing between simple vs. stratified and cuboidal vs. columnar.
  ### Identification of Tissue Types
  
  When studying histology, it's important to be able to identify different types of tissues based on their structure. Two key distinctions in epithelial tissue types that you should know include:
  
  - **Simple vs. Stratified Epithelia**:
  - **Simple Epithelium**: Composed of a single layer of cells. It is primarily involved in absorption, secretion, and filtration. Common types include:
  - **Simple Squamous**: Thin and flat cells, allowing for easier diffusion (e.g., alveoli in the lungs).
  - **Simple Cuboidal**: Cube-shaped cells, often involved in secretion and absorption (e.g., kidney tubules).
  - **Simple Columnar**: Tall, column-like cells, which may have microvilli or cilia, and are involved in absorption and secretion (e.g., lining of the intestines).
  - **Stratified Epithelium**: Composed of multiple layers of cells, providing protection against abrasion and penetration. Types include:
  - **Stratified Squamous**: Can be keratinized (e.g., skin) or non-keratinized (e.g., oral cavity).
  - **Stratified Cuboidal**: Rare, often found in some glands.
  - **Stratified Columnar**: Also rare, found in parts of the male urethra and some gland ducts.
  
  - **Cuboidal vs. Columnar Epithelia**:
  - **Cuboidal Epithelium**: Cubed shape, typically involved in secretion and absorption. Found in glands and kidney tubules.
  - **Columnar Epithelium**: Taller and column-like, designed for absorption and secretion, often found in the digestive tract and respiratory tract areas.
  
  Understanding these distinctions is crucial for effectively evaluating and identifying various tissues in lab settings.

Chapter Two Concepts

Atomic Structure and Bonds

• Review atomic symbols and the structure of atoms.

Ionic Bonds: These are formed when one atom donates an electron to another atom, resulting in the formation of charged ions. One atom becomes positively charged (cation), and the other becomes negatively charged (anion). The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions holds them together. Ionic bonds typically occur between metals and non-metals (e.g., sodium chloride).

Covalent Bonds: These are formed when two or more atoms share electrons, creating a stable bond. Covalent bonds often occur between non-metals. The shared pair of electrons allows each atom to attain the electron configuration of a noble gas, resulting in a more stable molecule (e.g., water, H2O). Covalent bonds can be single (one pair of shared electrons), double (two pairs), or triple (three pairs).

Cations: Positively charged ions that are formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

Anions: Negatively charged ions that are formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.

Electrolytes: Substances that dissociate into ions in solution and can conduct electricity; essential for various physiological functions such as nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.

Energy Types

• Potential Energy: Stored energy (e.g., a ball at the top of the stairs).

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of movement (e.g., a rolling ball).

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis vs. Decomposition Reactions

• Synthesis Reactions: These reactions involve combining two or more substances to form a new compound. The general form can be represented as:A + B → ABAn example of a synthesis reaction is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen:2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

• Decomposition Reactions: In contrast, decomposition reactions involve breaking down a compound into two or more simpler substances. This is depicted as:AB → A + BAn example of a decomposition reaction is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis:2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂Understanding these reactions is crucial for grasping fundamental concepts in chemistry, including energy changes and the conservation of mass during chemical transformations.

• Know enzyme functions and how catalysts speed up reactions without being consumed.
  Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the body without being consumed in the process. They work by lowering the activation energy required for reactions to occur, making it easier and faster for substrates (reactants) to be converted into products. Enzymes are specific to their substrates, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes only one type of reaction. Since enzymes are not consumed in the reaction, they can be used repeatedly, thus facilitating various biochemical processes necessary for life.

Chapter Three Focus

Cell Structure and Function

• Understand the basic definition of a cell as the basic unit of life.

• Identify organelles and their specific functions.
  **Organelles and Their Specific Functions:**
  
  1. **Nucleus**: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is responsible for regulating gene expression and maintaining DNA integrity.
  2. **Mitochondria**: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria are responsible for producing ATP (energy) through aerobic respiration.
  3. **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)**:
  - **Rough ER**: Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes and processes proteins.
  - **Smooth ER**: Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates, and detoxifies drugs.
  4. **Ribosomes**: Sites of protein synthesis, can be found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
  5. **Golgi Apparatus**: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
  6. **Lysosomes**: Contains digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
  7. **Peroxisomes**: Contains enzymes that detoxify harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide, and play a role in lipid metabolism.
  8. **Cytoskeleton**: A network of fibers that provide structural support, maintain cell shape, and facilitate movement.
  9. **Plasma Membrane**: A lipid bilayer that regulates what enters and exits the cell, maintaining the internal environment.
  10. **Centrioles**: Involved in cell division and the formation of spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during mitosis.

• Know the difference between active and passive transport mechanisms.
  ### Active and Passive Transport Mechanisms
  
  #### Active Transport
  - **Definition**: The movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, which requires energy (usually in the form of ATP).
  - **Examples**: Na+/K+ pump, proton pump.
  - **Characteristics**:
  - Moves substances against their concentration gradient.
  - Requires cellular energy.
  
  #### Passive Transport
  - **Definition**: The movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without the use of energy.
  - **Examples**: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
  - **Characteristics**:
  - Moves substances down their concentration gradient.
  - Does not require cellular energy.

Transport Mechanisms

• Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic: Definitions and effects on cells.
  ### Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic: Definitions and Effects on Cells
  - **Hypertonic**: A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell. When cells are placed in a hypertonic solution, water moves out of the cells to the area of higher solute concentration, causing the cells to shrink or crenate.
  
  - **Hypotonic**: A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell. When cells are placed in a hypotonic solution, water moves into the cells, leading to cell swelling and potentially causing them to burst or lyse.
  
  - **Isotonic**: A solution that has the same concentration of solutes as that found inside a cell. In isotonic solutions, there is no net movement of water into or out of the cell, maintaining cell size and shape.

• Understand the role of microvilli, cilia, and flagella in cellular functions.
  Microvilli, cilia, and flagella are cellular structures involved in various functions within cells:
  
  - **Microvilli**: These are small, finger-like projections that increase the surface area of a cell, particularly useful in absorption and secretion. They are commonly found in epithelial cells lining the intestines, where they enhance nutrient absorption.
  
  - **Cilia**: These are short, hair-like structures that protrude from the cell surface. Cilia can move in coordinated waves to propel substances across the surface of the cell. For example, cilia are essential in the respiratory tract, where they help move mucus and trapped particles out of the airways to keep them clear.
  
  - **Flagella**: These are longer, whip-like structures used for cell locomotion. They can propel cells through fluid environments. A primary example is sperm cells, which utilize flagella to swim towards the egg during fertilization.
  
  Each of these structures plays a vital role in maintaining cellular function and facilitating interaction with the surrounding environment.

Chapter Four: Tissue Types

Types of Tissues and Their Characteristics

• Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue: Understand the main functions and specific characteristics.
  **Types of Tissues and Their Characteristics**
  
  1. **Epithelial Tissue**:
  - **Function**: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities and organs, and forms glands.
  - **Characteristics**: Composed of closely packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix, has polarity (apical and basal surfaces), and is avascular (lacks blood vessels). Epithelial tissues are classified by shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and number of layers (simple, stratified).
  
  2. **Connective Tissue**:
  - **Function**: Supports, binds, and protects other tissues; stores energy; and transports materials.
  - **Characteristics**: Composed of a diverse range of cells scattered throughout an extensive extracellular matrix (which can be liquid, gel-like, or solid); types include loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, adipose tissue, blood, and bone.
  
  3. **Muscle Tissue**:
  - **Function**: Responsible for movement of the body and its parts, including voluntary and involuntary movements.
  - **Characteristics**: Composed of elongated cells (muscle fibers) that can contract. Muscle tissue types include skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary, striated), and smooth (involuntary, non-striated).
  
  4. **Nervous Tissue**:
  - **Function**: Transmits electrical signals for communication between different parts of the body, allowing for coordination and response to stimuli.
  - **Characteristics**: Composed of neurons (nerve cells) that transmit signals and glial cells (supporting cells) that provide nourishment and protection to neurons.

• Familiarize yourself with different types of epithelial tissue and their locations in the body.
  There are several types of epithelial tissue, each with distinct characteristics and locations in the body:
  
  1. **Simple Squamous Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Alveoli in the lungs, lining of blood vessels (endothelium), and serous membranes.
  - **Function**: Allows for easy diffusion and filtration due to its thin, flat cell structure.
  
  2. **Simple Cuboidal Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Kidney tubules, small glands, and the surface of the ovaries.
  - **Function**: Involved in secretion and absorption.
  
  3. **Simple Columnar Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Lining of the stomach, intestines, and uterine tubes.
  - **Function**: Primarily for absorption and secretion; may have cilia or microvilli to enhance function.
  
  4. **Stratified Squamous Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Skin (keratinized), oral cavity, esophagus, and vagina (non-keratinized).
  - **Function**: Protects underlying tissues from abrasion and damage.
  
  5. **Transitional Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Urinary bladder, ureters, and parts of the urethra.
  - **Function**: Allows for stretching and recoiling as the bladder fills and empties.
  
  6. **Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium**
  - **Location**: Lining of the respiratory tract, including the trachea and bronchi.
  - **Function**: Secretes mucus and propels it with cilia to trap and expel particles and pathogens.

Cell Junctions

• Recognize the differences between desmosomes, gap junctions, and hemidesmosomes in terms of function and location.
  **Desmosomes**:
  - **Function**: Provides mechanical strength by anchoring adjacent cells together, allowing them to function as a single unit, particularly in tissues that experience significant stress, like the heart and skin.
  - **Location**: Found in tissues that endure stretching and shearing forces, such as cardiac muscle and epithelial layers.
  
  **Gap Junctions**:
  - **Function**: Allows direct communication between adjacent cells through channels that permit the passage of ions and small molecules. This facilitates coordination of cellular activities, such as in muscle contractions.
  - **Location**: Commonly found in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle tissues, enabling synchronized contractions, and in some epithelial tissues.
  
  **Hemidesmosomes**:
  - **Function**: Anchors epithelial cells to the underlying basement membrane, providing stability and preventing tissue detachment.
  - **Location**: Located at the basal surface of epithelial cells, particularly in areas where the tissue interacts with connective tissue, such as the skin and the lining of organs.