Psych midterm 2 study guide

Psych midterm 2 study guide

Consciousness

1. Qualia: Qualia refers to the subjective, individual experiences of perception. For example, the redness of red, the bitterness of coffee, or the sensation of pain. It's about how we uniquely experience things, and these experiences can't be directly shared or fully understood by others.
   
   

2. Consciousness and Attention: Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence and environment. Attention is the process of focusing mental resources on specific information, and it is crucial for consciousness. We are consciously aware of what we attend to. Attention filters information, allowing us to focus on important things while ignoring others.
   
   

3. Automatic vs. Controlled Processing:
   
   

   • Automatic Processing happens effortlessly and quickly without conscious thought (e.g., walking, reading familiar words). It’s fast and requires little mental effort.

   • Controlled Processing requires conscious effort and focus, such as learning a new skill or problem-solving. It is slower but more flexible.

4. Gate Theory of Selective Attention: The Gate Theory suggests that our brain acts like a gate that either allows or blocks sensory information from entering consciousness. It helps explain why we can focus on a particular task and filter out irrelevant stimuli. Modern variations, such as the Neuroscientific View, suggest that attention is controlled by neural mechanisms that prioritize important sensory information.
   
   

5. Inattentional Blindness / Change Blindness:
   
   

   • Inattentional Blindness occurs when we fail to notice something because we’re focused on another task (e.g., the famous "invisible gorilla" experiment).

   • Change Blindness happens when we don’t notice changes in a visual scene, often because we're not paying enough attention to the change.

6. Shaping Behavior Unconsciously: Many behaviors are shaped unconsciously through mechanisms like priming (where exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another), habit formation, and classical/operant conditioning. We may not be aware of these influences, but they guide our actions.
   
   

7. Hypnosis: Hypnosis involves focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened suggestibility. It is used for pain management, overcoming habits (e.g., smoking), reducing stress, and in some therapeutic contexts. The process involves inducing a trance-like state, where the person is highly responsive to suggestions.
   
   

8. Forms of Meditation: Common forms include Mindfulness Meditation (focused on awareness and present moment), Transcendental Meditation (using a mantra to calm the mind), Loving-Kindness Meditation (focused on compassion), and Zen Meditation (focus on observing thoughts).
   
   

9. Immersion: Immersion refers to becoming fully engaged in an activity or environment, often with a sense of total involvement. This can be achieved through video games, virtual reality, art, and other activities that demand focus and involvement.
   
   

10. Psychoactive Drugs:
    
    

• Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, caffeine) increase alertness and energy. They work by enhancing the release or inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine.

• Depressants (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates) slow down brain function and can induce relaxation or drowsiness.

• Opiates (e.g., morphine, heroin) relieve pain by mimicking endorphins and bind to opioid receptors in the brain.

• Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, psilocybin) alter perception, causing visual and auditory distortions.

• Marijuana works through cannabinoids, affecting memory, appetite, and motor coordination.

• MDMA (ecstasy) increases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine levels, creating feelings of euphoria and emotional closeness.

11. Addiction, Tolerance, Withdrawal:

• Addiction is a compulsive need for a substance or behavior despite harmful consequences.

• Tolerance refers to the diminished effect of a substance after repeated use, leading to the need for higher doses.

• Withdrawal is the set of symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance they have become dependent on.

• Causes of addiction are debated but often include genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and changes in brain chemistry.

Learning

1. Learning Definition: Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviors through experience, study, or teaching.
   
   

2. Two Forms of Non-Associative Learning:
   
   

   • Habituation: Decreased response to repeated exposure to a stimulus.

   • Sensitization: Increased response to repeated exposure to a stimulus.

3. Learning Theory in Behaviorism: Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal thoughts or feelings. It suggests that all behaviors are learned from the environment through interactions with stimuli and responses.
   
   

4. Contributions of Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Skinner:
   
   

   • Thorndike: Developed the Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

   • Pavlov: Known for classical conditioning (e.g., dogs salivating at the sound of a bell).

   • Watson: Founder of behaviorism and demonstrated that emotional responses could be conditioned (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

   • Skinner: Developed operant conditioning, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.

5. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning:
   
   

   • Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov's dogs), where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

   • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (e.g., Skinner’s pigeons), where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.

6. Stimulus/Response Terminology:
   
   

   • In Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).

   • In Operant Conditioning: Antecedent, behavior, and consequence (reinforcement or punishment).

7. Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery:
   
   

   • Acquisition is the initial learning phase.

   • Extinction occurs when the conditioned response weakens due to the absence of the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement.

   • Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

8. Stimulus Discrimination/Generalization & Second-Order Conditioning:
   
   

   • Discrimination: Responding to only specific stimuli.

   • Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

   • Second-order conditioning: A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.

9. Role of Classical Conditioning in Phobia and Addiction:
   
   

   • Phobias: Can be conditioned through association (e.g., associating a neutral object with fear).

   • Addiction: The environment or stimuli associated with drug use can trigger cravings and relapse.

10. Systematic Approximation (Shaping): In operant conditioning, shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
    
    

11. Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment:
    
    

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., stopping loud noise when a correct action is performed).

• Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., giving extra chores for bad behavior).

• Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehavior).

12. When is Punishment Effective? Punishment is more effective when it is immediate, consistent, and appropriately severe. However, it can have negative side effects, such as aggression or avoidance.
    
    

13. Schedules of Reinforcement:
    
    

• Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules each have different effects on behavior learning and persistence.

14. Latent Learning & Vicarious Learning:

• Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated until there is an incentive.

• Vicarious learning (observational learning): Learning by observing others (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo Doll study).

15. Bandura's Bobo Doll Study: Bandura’s experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior they observe in adults. This showed the power of observational learning and the role of models in shaping behavior.
    
    

16. Broader Implications of Conditioning: Classical and operant conditioning have implications in education, therapy, advertising, parenting, and criminal justice systems by influencing behavior through reinforcement and punishment.