Protected Areas

Protected Areas

• One of the most effective tools for conservation.

• Eliminate many threats to biodiversity (but not all). Protected areas can significantly reduce threats such as habitat destruction, poaching, and unsustainable resource extraction. However, they may not be able to address threats originating outside their boundaries, such as climate change, pollution, and invasive species.

• Provide benefits beyond biodiversity conservation, such as ecosystem services (e.g., ANP La Vega Escondida). Protected areas often provide essential ecosystem services, including clean water, carbon sequestration, pollination, and erosion control. These services can benefit human populations both locally and globally.

• Definition: A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed through legal and other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. This definition emphasizes the importance of legal recognition, dedicated management, and long-term conservation goals.

• Not all protected areas are well-suited for higher biodiversity (e.g., unique geological formations like Arches National Park, UT). Some protected areas are established to protect unique geological formations, cultural heritage sites, or recreational opportunities, rather than biodiversity. These areas may not support high levels of biodiversity.

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Historical Context

• Protected areas have a long tradition in various countries. Many countries have a long history of establishing protected areas for various reasons, including conservation, recreation, and spiritual purposes.

• In the US, Yellowstone and Yosemite National Parks were established in 1864 and 1872. Yellowstone and Yosemite were among the first national parks in the world, and their establishment marked a significant milestone in the history of conservation.

• 1879: Royal National Park in Australia.

• 1892: Kruger National Park in South Africa.

• Initially, PAs were created in response to the loss of wild places and as refuges for game species.

  • Hunting was originally off-limits, allowing populations to be sustained and 'feed' other areas. Initially, protected areas were often established to protect game species from overhunting, allowing their populations to recover and disperse to other areas.

  • Today, some categories allow exploitation. Today, some protected area categories allow for sustainable resource extraction, such as logging, fishing, and grazing, under certain conditions.

  • Marine protected areas are established specifically as spawning or breeding grounds. Marine protected areas are often established to protect critical spawning and breeding grounds for fish and other marine species.

• Establishment of protected areas is a requirement for many international environmental agreements and conventions.

  • Examples:

    • Convention for Biological Diversity. Requires countries to establish a system of protected areas to conserve biodiversity.

    • Convention & Conservation of Migratory Species. Promotes the conservation of migratory species and their habitats, including through the establishment of protected areas.

    • Convention for the Protection of Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR). Promotes the conservation and wise use of wetlands, including through the designation of Ramsar sites (wetlands of international importance).

Current State

• The number of PAs increased rapidly worldwide from the 1960s. The number of protected areas has increased dramatically in recent decades, reflecting growing awareness of the importance of conservation.

• First World Parks Congress: 1962.

IUCN Categories of Protected Areas

• Protected areas fall under different categories, each with a different level of protection. The IUCN categories provide a framework for classifying protected areas based on their management objectives.

• Management goals vary from strict protection to sustainable extraction of natural resources. Management goals can range from strict protection of biodiversity to sustainable use of natural resources, depending on the specific objectives of the protected area.

• The IUCN has defined 6 protected area management categories based upon the primary management goal:

  • Category I: Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas

    • Primary purpose: protect biodiversity and maintain evolutionary and ecosystem processes intact. These areas are managed primarily for biodiversity conservation, with minimal human disturbance.

    • Managed for scientific purposes; serve as reference areas. Strict nature reserves are often used for scientific research and monitoring, serving as reference areas for comparison with more disturbed areas.

    • Limit mechanized access. Mechanized access is typically restricted in these areas to minimize disturbance.

    • Recreation is excluded. Recreation is generally not allowed in strict nature reserves to protect sensitive ecosystems and species.

  • Category II: National Parks

    • Managed for ecosystem protection and human enjoyment or recreation. National parks are managed for both biodiversity conservation and human recreation.

    • Scientific, educational, and recreational activities are important. Scientific research, education, and recreation are all important activities in national parks.

    • Dual mandate can be problematic (e.g., snowmobiles in Yellowstone, campfires). The dual mandate of national parks can sometimes lead to conflicts between conservation and recreation (e.g., snowmobiles in Yellowstone, campfires).

  • Category III: National Monuments

    • Managed for the conservation of a specific resource or feature (e.g., waterfalls, caves, geologic features). National monuments are typically established to protect specific natural or cultural features.

  • Category IV: Habitat/Species Management Area

    • Conservation with intervention. Habitat/species management areas often involve active management interventions to protect specific habitats or species.

    • Scientific research and monitoring are of prime importance. Scientific research and monitoring are essential for guiding management decisions in these areas.

  • Category V: Protected Landscape and Seascape

    • Protect the historical interaction of people and the environment. Protected landscapes and seascapes protect areas where the interaction between people and nature has created a unique cultural and natural landscape.

    • Usually has both natural and cultural resources (e.g., Leshan Giant Buddha). These areas typically contain both natural and cultural resources.

    • Ancestral people included

  • Category VI: Managed Resource Protection Area

    • Unmodified ecosystems, protection of biological diversity. Managed resource protection areas allow for sustainable use of natural resources while also protecting biodiversity.

    • Allows sustainable resource use (e.g., Ngorogoro crater, cattle and the Maasai). Sustainable resource use is often an integral part of the management of these areas (e.g., Ngorogoro crater, cattle and the Maasai).

• Debate between Strict Protection vs Multiple Use – The role of strictly protected (Cat I-IV) vs. Multiple use (V & VI) is debated

• While restricted areas provide very good protection, they may alienate local people

23.3\%
of world’s protected areas are Cat. VI (vs. Cat I, <11\%).

Other Classifications

• Protected areas of any category can also be classified as Biosphere Reserves, Ramsar Wetlands, or World Heritage Sites. Protected areas can receive multiple designations, recognizing their importance for different values.

Biosphere Reserves

• Currently 714 biosphere reserves in 129 countries (UNESCO: Man and the Biosphere Program). Biosphere reserves are designated by UNESCO to promote sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.

• Biospheres have 1 or 2 areas of low-intensity use and 1 restricted core. Biosphere reserves typically have a core area with strict protection, surrounded by buffer zones and transition zones where sustainable activities are allowed.

• Example: El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.

Ramsar Wetlands

• The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance was signed in 1971 in Ramsar, Iran. The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.

• Focuses on international cooperation for the conservation of important wetlands. The convention promotes international cooperation on wetland conservation.

• Contracting parties commit to designating eligible areas as Ramsar wetlands and are rewarded with management tools and aid in implementation. Contracting parties agree to designate suitable wetlands as Ramsar sites and receive support for their management.

World Heritage Sites

• Cultural and natural heritage (Convention 1972). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for their outstanding cultural or natural value.

• Sites of outstanding value to all peoples of the world (UNESCO: World Heritage Convention). These sites are considered to be of universal value.

• The large majority are of cultural value (1/5 are of natural value). Most World Heritage Sites are designated for their cultural value, but some are designated for their natural value.

Marine Protected Areas (MPA)

• Country jurisdiction. Marine protected areas are typically established within national waters.

• MPAs in international waters.

Management Effectiveness

• How effective is a protected area?

• IUCN framework to measure:

  • Design (e.g., shape, size, buffer zones, connectivity). The design of a protected area, including its shape, size, buffer zones, and connectivity to other areas, can affect its effectiveness.

  • Management. The management of a protected area, including staffing, funding, and enforcement, can also affect its effectiveness.

  • Achieved objectives (e.g., evaluation of biological and social outcomes). The effectiveness of a protected area should be evaluated based on whether it is achieving its objectives for biodiversity conservation and social outcomes.

• Example: Evaluation in Brazil

  • 86 protected areas evaluated

  • 47 unimplemented (no management plan).

  • 32 minimally implemented.

  • 7 were reasonably implemented.

  • As a result, lobbied government to increase spending in protected areas.

• Despite shortcomings, protected areas do achieve some goals.

  • Richness and abundances higher in PA, even without enforced protection. Studies have shown that species richness and abundance are often higher inside protected areas, even when enforcement is limited.

  • Evidence of effectiveness in marine areas. There is growing evidence of the effectiveness of marine protected areas.

  • Natural vegetative cover tends to increase. Natural vegetation cover often increases inside protected areas.

• Study of older (23 yrs+) protected tropical areas in 22 countries: majority of sites have increased natural vegetative cover reduction increase.

• Effectiveness is correlated to:

  • Enforcement (density of guards). Enforcement, such as the density of park rangers, is an important factor in the effectiveness of protected areas.

  • Boundary demarcation. Clearly demarcated boundaries can help to prevent encroachment and illegal activities.

  • Direct compensation to locals. Providing direct compensation to local communities can help to reduce conflict and increase support for protected areas.

  • Probability of sanction.

• Specific threats in some protected areas:

  • Poaching.

  • Logging.

  • Collection of NTP (Non-Timber Products).

  • Encroachment.

Reserve Systems

• Reserve systems are usually more efficient than single protected areas (unless very large) for the conservation of biodiversity. Reserve systems, which consist of multiple protected areas that are managed in a coordinated way, are often more effective than single protected areas.

• Advantages:

  • Standardized, collective management. Reserve systems allow for standardized and collective management of protected areas.

  • Connectivity is promoted (corridors, favorable matrix). Reserve systems can promote connectivity between protected areas, allowing for the movement of species and the flow of ecological processes.

  • Easier translocations when needed. Reserve systems can make it easier to translocate species between protected areas when needed.

Towards Reserve Systems

• Current distribution of PAs is uneven (due to convenience, political reasons, etc.). The current distribution of protected areas is often uneven, reflecting historical patterns of land use and political considerations.

• GAP analysis: Identifies under-representation (or lack of protection) by comparing distribution of PAs with distribution of species, vegetation types, or other types of biodiversity.

  • Spatial planning tool to find the gaps.

• The 'Global Gap Analysis Project' (2004) combined data from the World Database on Protected Areas with distributional data for 11,633 species.

• Global Gap Analysis project:

  • 1424 species (mammals, amphibians, freshwater turtles, tortoises, birds) are not protected in any part of their range (gap species).

  • 804 of which are already threatened with extinction.

• Areas of irreplaceability (high endemism) AND of high threat = areas of high priority for protection. Areas with high levels of endemism and high levels of threat are often considered to be high priorities for protection.

• Currently, 17\% of Earth’s land surface is under PA designation.

• Marine PA are 8\% of the oceans’ surface.

  • 1/3 of Great Barrier Reef is protected, is largest MPA.

Principles of Reserve Design

• Ecosystem partially/completely protected.

• Smaller/Larger reserve.

• Fragmented/Unfragmented reserve.

• Fewer/More reserves.

• Isolated reserves with/without corridors maintained.

• Isolated reserves with/without