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George W. Bush ("43") – The 43rd president of the United States (2001–2009), son of the 41st president, George H.W. Bush. He was a Republican who served as governor of Texas before his presidency. His tenure was marked by tax cuts, the War on Terror, and controversial policies on stem cell research and environmental issues.

John Quincy Adams – The 6th president of the United States (1825–1829) and the son of the 2nd president, John Adams. Like Bush, he was a presidential offspring who later became president.

George H.W. Bush ("41") – The 41st president of the United States (1989–1993) and father of George W. Bush. He was a Republican known for his foreign policy leadership, including the Gulf War.

Dick Cheney – Vice president under George W. Bush (2001–2009). A former secretary of defense, he was a powerful figure in the Bush administration, especially regarding energy policy and foreign affairs.  A strong advocate for the Iraq War and a key figure in Bush’s national security team.

Osama bin Laden – The founder and leader of Al Qaeda, responsible for orchestrating the 9/11 attacks. He was based in Afghanistan under Taliban protection until he was killed by U.S. forces in 2011.

Taliban – An Islamic fundamentalist group that ruled Afghanistan and provided refuge to Osama bin Laden. The U.S. overthrew them in 2001 but they later resurged.

Saddam Hussein – The dictator of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. Accused of developing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and supporting terrorism. He was overthrown in the 2003 U.S. invasion and executed in 2006.

Neoconservative Pundits – Political analysts in Washington who supported the Iraq War, predicting that American troops would be welcomed as liberators.

Sunni Muslims – A major branch of Islam, forming the minority population in Iraq but historically dominant under Saddam Hussein’s rule. Many Sunnis resisted the new Shia-led government.

Shia Muslims – The majority religious group in Iraq, which gained political power after Saddam Hussein’s fall, leading to sectarian conflict with Sunnis.

Jihadist Terrorists – Extremist militants who entered Iraq after the U.S. invasion, seeking to exploit sectarian tensions and advance radical Islamist goals.

Al Qaeda – A terrorist organization that did not have ties to Saddam Hussein’s Iraq but moved into the country following the U.S. invasion, contributing to ongoing violence.

President George H.W. Bush (b. 1924–2018) – The 41st president of the United States (1989–1993), who chose not to remove Saddam Hussein from power after the 1991 Persian Gulf War, warning of the risks of long-term occupation.

John Kerry (b. 1943) – A Democratic senator from Massachusetts who ran against Bush in the 2004 presidential election, promoting progressive policies and highlighting his Vietnam War record.

John G. Roberts (b. 1955) – Appointed by Bush as Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court in 2005 after the death of William Rehnquist.

Samuel A. Alito, Jr. (b. 1950) – A conservative justice appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by Bush in 2006 following the retirement of Sandra Day O’Connor.

William Rehnquist (1924–2005) – The Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1986 until his death in 2005, after which John Roberts replaced him.

Sandra Day O’Connor (b. 1930) – The first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court, who retired in 2006, leading to the appointment of Samuel Alito.

Donald Rumsfeld (1932–2021) – The U.S. Secretary of Defense who resigned after the Republican losses in the 2006 midterm elections, largely due to dissatisfaction with the Iraq War.

Nancy Pelosi (b. 1940) – A Democratic congresswoman from California who became the first woman to serve as Speaker of the House after the Democrats won the 2006 midterm elections.

Hillary Rodham Clinton – Former First Lady and New York senator who was the pre-campaign favorite for the Democratic nomination but lost narrowly to Barack Obama.

Joseph Biden – Delaware senator and Obama's running mate, chosen for his foreign policy expertise. He later became the 46th president of the United States.

John McCain – Long-time senator from Arizona, Republican nominee for president in 2008, a Vietnam War hero, and a self-described "maverick" known for bipartisan efforts.

Sarah Palin – First-term governor of Alaska and McCain’s running mate. Initially energized conservative voters but was criticized for her lack of experience and knowledge on key issues.

Henry Paulson – Treasury Secretary who played a major role in the federal response to the 2008 financial crisis, including the creation of the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP).

Hubert Védrine – French foreign minister who coined the term "hyperpower" to describe U.S. dominance in global politics.

George W. Bush – U.S. president before Obama, whose administration intervened in the financial crisis by nationalizing mortgage companies and creating TARP.

Donald J. Trump – Elected U.S. president in 2016, known for his "America First" policies that shifted the country toward nationalism and away from global cooperation.

Sonia Sotomayor (b. 1954) – Appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2009, becoming the first Hispanic justice and one of three female justices at the time.

Elena Kagan (b. 1960) – Appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 2010, increasing the number of female justices on the Court to three.

Barack Obama (b. 1961) – The 44th president of the United States, overseeing military withdrawals from Iraq and Afghanistan while expanding drone warfare.

Hillary Rodham Clinton (b. 1947) – Former First Lady and Secretary of State under Obama, involved in diplomatic efforts to rebuild alliances and manage foreign relations.

Osama bin Laden (1957–2011) – Leader of Al Qaeda and mastermind of the 9/11 attacks, killed by U.S. forces in Pakistan in May 2011.

Ronald Reagan – The 40th president of the U.S. (1981–1989). His tax and fiscal policies were criticized for favoring the wealthy and contributing to income inequality.

George H.W. Bush – The 41st president of the U.S. (1989–1993). His administration’s economic policies were also linked to growing inequality.

George W. Bush – The 43rd president of the U.S. (2001–2009). His tax cuts and economic policies were seen as benefiting the wealthy.

Donald Trump – The 45th president of the U.S. (2017–2021). His tax policies were criticized for favoring the rich.

Second Half

Supreme court

Alito

Roberrts

Sonia Sotomayer

Elena Kagan 

Barack Obama – The 44th president of the U.S., running for reelection on his handling of the economy, healthcare, and foreign policy.

Mitt Romney – Former Massachusetts governor and Republican presidential candidate. The first Mormon nominee from a major party, with a background in private equity and management consulting.

Paul Ryan – Wisconsin congressman and Republican vice-presidential nominee.

Justice Anthony Kennedy – Supreme Court Justice who wrote the majority opinion in Citizens United v. FEC.

Barack Obama – 44th President of the United States, faced continued congressional obstruction and increasingly relied on executive actions.

Mitt Romney – 2012 Republican presidential candidate, lost to Obama in the general election.

John Boehner – Speaker of the House until 2015, ousted by a faction of House Republicans.

Paul Ryan – Wisconsin Representative, became Speaker of the House in 2015 after Boehner's removal.

Freedom Caucus – A hardline conservative faction of House Republicans that pushed for aggressive opposition to Obama’s policies.

Jan Brewer – Governor of Arizona who signed a strict anti-immigration bill in 2010, sparking national debate over immigration policy.

Donald Trump – U.S. president (2017–2021) who advocated for reinforcing and extending the U.S.-Mexico border wall.

Janet Napolitano – Former Arizona governor and U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security who criticized the effectiveness of a border wall.

Edward Snowden – A former CIA and NSA contractor who leaked 1.5 million classified documents in 2013, exposing government surveillance programs.

Angela Merkel – German Chancellor whose cell phone was revealed to have been tapped by the NSA, as part of Snowden’s revelations.

Michael Hayden – Former NSA director (1999–2005) who labeled Snowden a traitor and defended the government’s surveillance programs.

Barack Obama (b. 1961) – The 44th President of the United States (2009–2017), whose second term was marked by struggles with a Republican-controlled Congress, racial tensions, and foreign policy challenges.

Trayvon Martin (1995–2012) – A 17-year-old African American teenager fatally shot in Florida by a neighborhood watch volunteer, sparking national debates about race and justice.

Alicia Garza (b. 1981) – Co-founder of the Black Lives Matter movement, advocating for racial justice and systemic reform.

Hillary Clinton (b. 1947) – Former Secretary of State (2009–2013) and 2016 Democratic presidential candidate, criticized for her handling of the Benghazi attack.

Muammar Qaddafi (1942–2011) – Former Libyan leader who was overthrown and killed in 2011 after a U.S.-led NATO intervention.

Bashar al-Assad (b. 1965) – Syrian president whose regime engaged in a brutal civil war, including the use of chemical weapons.

Vladimir Putin (b. 1952) – President of Russia, known for annexing Crimea in 2014 and military intervention in Ukraine and Syria.

ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) – A militant extremist organization that seized territory in Iraq and Syria, engaged in acts of terrorism, and declared a caliphate.

Boko Haram – A Nigeria-based militant Islamist group affiliated with ISIS, known for mass abductions and attacks.

Hillary Clinton (b. 1947) – Former Secretary of State and 2016 Democratic presidential candidate. She lost to Donald Trump despite winning the popular vote.

Bernie Sanders (b. 1941) – Vermont senator and self-proclaimed democratic socialist who ran against Clinton in the Democratic primaries, appealing to young progressive voters.

Donald J. Trump (b. 1946) – New York real estate mogul and reality TV personality who secured the Republican nomination and won the presidency in 2016.

Steve Bannon (b. 1953) – Trump’s former campaign manager and chief strategist in the White House, known for his populist and nationalist political views.

James Comey (b. 1960) – Then-FBI Director who announced a renewed investigation into Clinton’s private email use just days before the election, a move that may have influenced the outcome.

Events & Policies:

Embryonic Stem Cell Research Controversy – A national debate over whether the government should fund research on embryonic stem cells, which had potential for treating diseases but was opposed by religious groups. Bush vetoed legislation supporting it.

Human Genome Project (2001) – A scientific initiative that successfully mapped the entire human genome, opening the door to new medical advancements but also raising ethical concerns.

Council on Bioethics (2001) – Established by Bush to examine ethical issues in biotechnology. It was later replaced by Obama’s National Bioethics Advisory Commission.

Kyoto Treaty – An international agreement aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Bush withdrew U.S. support for the treaty, frustrating environmentalists.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) Drilling Debate – A political and environmental controversy over proposals to allow oil drilling in Alaska’s ANWR, an ecologically sensitive area. Cheney advocated for expansion of domestic energy supplies, including drilling here.

2008 Financial Crisis – A severe global economic downturn caused by the collapse of the housing market, risky financial practices, and excessive government debt. The crisis deepened the U.S. budget deficit.

September 11, 2001 (9/11) Attacks – A coordinated terrorist attack where Al Qaeda hijackers flew planes into the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon, and an intended target in Washington, D.C., which crashed in Pennsylvania due to passenger resistance. Nearly 3,000 people died.

War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) – The U.S. military campaign launched in response to 9/11 to remove the Taliban from power and target Al Qaeda.

USA Patriot Act (2001) – A controversial law passed after 9/11 that expanded government surveillance powers, allowing for monitoring of phone calls, emails, and financial transactions of suspected terrorists.

Department of Homeland Security (2002) – A new U.S. government agency created to coordinate national security efforts and prevent future terrorist attacks.

Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006) – A Supreme Court case that ruled the Bush administration did not have the authority to try suspected terrorists in military tribunals without congressional approval.

Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) (2001) – A congressional resolution giving the president broad powers to use military force against those responsible for 9/11. It was later used to justify military actions in multiple countries beyond Afghanistan.

Guantánamo Bay Detention Camp – A U.S. military prison in Cuba where suspected terrorists, including Taliban fighters, were detained without formal charges, sparking debate over human rights and civil liberties.

Iraq War (2003–2011) – The U.S. invasion of Iraq began on March 19, 2003, under the claim that Saddam Hussein possessed WMDs and supported terrorism. Baghdad fell quickly, but no WMDs were found.

Axis of Evil Speech (2002) – Bush identified Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as threats to global security, arguing that they pursued WMDs and supported terrorism.

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq (2002) – U.S. Congress passed this resolution, allowing Bush to use military force to remove Saddam Hussein and enforce U.N. resolutions.

United Nations Inspections (1991–2003) – After the Persian Gulf War, Iraq was required to allow U.N. inspectors to monitor its WMD programs. Saddam expelled inspectors in 1998, leading to tensions and justifications for the 2003 war.

Mission Accomplished Speech (May 1, 2003) – Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq, though the war and insurgency continued for years.

The Middle East Conflicts (Post-2003) – The Iraq War contributed to instability across the Middle East, including the rise of insurgent groups and the Islamic State (IS

U.S. Invasion of Iraq (2003) – A military operation led by the United States that removed Saddam Hussein from power, justified by claims of weapons of mass destruction and ties to terrorism.

Sunni-Shia Conflict – Sectarian violence that erupted after Saddam’s removal, as Shia Muslims took power and many Sunnis resisted, leading to bombings, assassinations, and insurgency.

Abu Ghraib Prison Scandal (April 2004) – A controversy in which U.S. military personnel were found to have tortured and humiliated Iraqi prisoners, worsening anti-American sentiment.

Insurgency and Jihadist Terrorism (Post-2003) – Armed resistance movements against U.S. forces and the new Iraqi government, fueled by former Baathist elements, Sunni insurgents, and extremist groups like Al Qaeda.

Iraqi Elections (2005) – A series of democratic elections in which Iraqis voted for a national assembly, constitution, and leadership, despite ongoing violence.

U.S. Military Withdrawal Plans (2004–2011) – American forces began ceding power to Iraqi authorities in 2004 and later planned a full withdrawal, which was completed in 2011.

2002 State of the Union Address – A speech by President George W. Bush in which he labeled Iraq as part of the "Axis of Evil" and justified intervention due to alleged weapons of mass destruction and ties to terrorism.

A World Transformed (1998) – A book by former President George H.W. Bush, in which he explained why he chose not to remove Saddam Hussein from power after the 1991 Gulf War, warning of the dangers of occupation.

United Nations Mandate – The legal framework under which the U.S. led the Persian Gulf War in 1991, which did not authorize regime change in Iraq.

2004 Presidential Election – A contested election in which George W. Bush defeated John Kerry, winning both the Electoral College (286 to 252) and the popular vote (60.6 million to 57.3 million).

Same-Sex Marriage Legalization (2004) – Local and state leaders in San Francisco and Massachusetts permitted same-sex marriage, sparking national controversy.

Affirmative Action Debate (2003) – The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of allowing some forms of affirmative action in college admissions, specifically in a case involving the University of Michigan.

No Child Left Behind Act (2001) – A federal education law signed by President Bush that imposed accountability measures on schools, requiring standardized testing and imposing sanctions on underperforming institutions.

U.S. Supreme Court Decision on Affirmative Action (2003) – A divided ruling that upheld limited affirmative action policies at the University of Michigan, allowing race to be considered in admissions.

Bush’s Call for a Constitutional Amendment (2004) – A proposed amendment to ban same-sex marriage, supported by Bush to appeal to cultural conservatives.

2005 Supreme Court Appointments – The appointments of John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the U.S. Supreme Court, shaping its conservative majority.

Privatization of Social Security (2005) – A failed attempt by Bush to partially privatize Social Security, which faced strong opposition from groups like the AARP.

Same-Sex Marriage Amendment (2005) – A proposed constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage, which ultimately failed.

Hurricane Katrina (2005) – A devastating hurricane that flooded New Orleans and much of the Gulf Coast, causing over 1,300 deaths and $150 billion in damages. FEMA’s mismanagement of the response led to widespread criticism of Bush’s leadership.

2006 Midterm Elections – A major Democratic victory that flipped control of both the House and Senate due to growing dissatisfaction with the Iraq War and Bush’s handling of domestic issues.

Iraq War Troop Surge (2007) – A U.S. military strategy that sent an additional 20,000 troops to Iraq in an attempt to stabilize the country amid escalating violence.

Presidential Election of 2008 – A historic election in which Barack Obama defeated John McCain, winning 53% of the popular vote and 365 electoral votes.

2008 Financial Crisis – A massive economic downturn caused by the collapse of the housing market, leading to mortgage defaults, failing financial institutions, and global economic turmoil.

Collapse of Lehman Brothers (2008) – The bankruptcy of this major Wall Street firm intensified the financial crisis and led to stock market declines.

Great Recession – The severe economic downturn following the financial crisis, marked by high unemployment and government bailouts.

TARP (Troubled Assets Relief Program, 2008) – A $700 billion federal program designed to stabilize the economy by buying toxic assets and injecting cash into banks.

September 11, 2001 (9/11) – A terrorist attack by Al Qaeda that destroyed the World Trade Center, leading to shifts in U.S. foreign policy.

Iraq War (2003-2011) – A controversial war initiated by the U.S. under President George W. Bush, leading to prolonged conflict in the region.

Abu Ghraib Prison Scandal (2003) – A major human rights scandal where American soldiers tortured Iraqi prisoners, damaging the U.S.'s global reputation.

Election of Donald Trump (2016) – A turning point in U.S. politics, with Trump shifting foreign and trade policies, withdrawing from the Paris Climate Accord and TPP.

Federal National Mortgage Association ("Fannie Mae") – A government-sponsored enterprise taken over by the federal government during the financial crisis.

Federal Home Mortgage Corporation ("Freddie Mac") – Another mortgage company nationalized to stabilize the housing market.

American International Group (AIG) – The world’s largest insurance company at the time, which was effectively taken over by the U.S. government due to the financial crisis.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – A military alliance that invoked Article Five after the 9/11 attacks, declaring that an attack on one member was an attack on all.

Paris Climate Accord (2015) – A global agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which the U.S. withdrew from under Trump.

Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) – A trade agreement among Pacific nations that Trump abandoned.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – A trade agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, which Trump criticized and renegotiated into the USMCA.

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) – A powerful advocacy group that opposed Bush’s attempt to privatize Social Security.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) – A federal agency criticized for its inadequate response to Hurricane Katrina.

2005 Domestic Surveillance Scandal – A revelation that the U.S. government was conducting illegal wiretap surveillance on American citizens, sparking concerns over civil liberties.

Obama’s Inauguration (2009) – Marked by a large and enthusiastic crowd in Washington, D.C., celebrating his vision of hope, but tempered by his call for responsibility amid a severe economic crisis.

Great Recession (2007–2009) – A major economic downturn characterized by job losses, business closures, and financial instability, often compared to the Great Depression. It deeply impacted the U.S. economy and shaped Obama's early presidency.

Obama’s First Hundred Days (2009) – A period in which he aggressively tackled the economic crisis with a massive stimulus package and interventions in the auto industry.

Passage of the Affordable Care Act (2010) – A landmark health-care reform law expanding insurance coverage and introducing cost controls, also known as “Obamacare.”

Passage of Dodd-Frank Act (2010) – A major financial reform law aimed at preventing another financial crisis by increasing regulation of banks and consumer protections.

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009) – A nearly $1 trillion stimulus package that included tax cuts, infrastructure spending, and financial aid to state and local governments to counter the effects of the recession.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) (2010) – Commonly called “Obamacare,” this law mandated health insurance, prohibited discrimination based on preexisting conditions, and expanded Medicaid.

Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (2010) (Dodd-Frank Act) – A financial regulatory overhaul aimed at curbing risky banking practices and increasing consumer protections.

Tea Party Movement (2009–2010s) – A conservative political movement that emerged in response to Obama’s policies, opposing big government and advocating for reduced spending and taxation. It played a major role in shifting the Republican Party further to the right.

2010 Midterm Elections – A significant political shift where Republicans gained control of the U.S. House of Representatives by winning 63 seats, fueled by backlash against Obama’s policies and the Tea Party’s mobilization.

2012 Presidential Election (Upcoming) – Mentioned in the context of Republican hopes for victory, as Obama’s declining approval ratings and partisan gridlock created uncertainty about his reelection prospects.

2010 Census and Reapportionment – A constitutionally mandated census that resulted in the redistribution of congressional seats and Electoral College votes, benefiting Republican-controlled states, especially in the South and West.

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) (2010) – Also known as "Obamacare," criticized by conservatives and a major point of contention in the backlash against Obama.

2010 Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act) – A financial reform law opposed by conservatives, particularly those in the Tea Party, as an example of excessive government regulation.

Cap-and-Trade Bill (Failed Legislation) – A proposed law to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, ultimately blocked by Republican opposition.

U.S. Census (2010) – A population count that led to the redrawing of congressional districts, reinforcing Republican political power in many states.

Nobel Peace Prize (2009) – Awarded to Obama for his efforts to improve international relations, though the decision was met with surprise and criticism.

Iraq War Withdrawal (2010–2011) – Obama ended U.S. combat operations in Iraq in 2010, with all combat troops withdrawn by December 2011.

Afghanistan War Surge and Drawdown (2009–2016) – Obama deployed 30,000 additional troops in 2009 but later began withdrawing forces, leaving 9,800 troops by the end of his presidency.

Killing of Osama bin Laden (2011) – A U.S. Navy SEAL operation successfully located and killed bin Laden in Pakistan after a decade-long hunt.

Expansion of Drone Warfare (2009–2016) – Increased use of drones for targeted strikes, particularly in Yemen and Pakistan, sparking domestic and international criticism over civilian casualties and the legality of targeting U.S. citizens.

Guantánamo Bay Controversy (2009–2017) – Obama attempted to close the detention center, but congressional opposition kept it open, with detainees remaining in legal limbo.

Executive Orders on Torture (2009) – Obama banned waterboarding and other interrogation techniques considered to be torture.

Counterinsurgency Strategy in Afghanistan (2009) – A military approach combining troop surges with political stabilization efforts, though with limited success.

Use of Drones in Warfare – Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) used for targeted killings, raising ethical and legal debates.

Second Half

2008 Financial Crisis – A major economic downturn that led to high unemployment and slow economic growth, worsening inequality.

Occupy Wall Street (2011) – A protest movement that began in New York’s financial district, highlighting income inequality and popularizing the slogan “We Are the 99 Percent.”

Tea Party Movement – A conservative political movement that emerged during Obama’s presidency, opposing government spending and progressive policies.

2012 State of the Union Address – A speech by President Obama where he addressed income inequality and called for policies to restore broad-based prosperity.

2017 Study on College Admissions – A study showing that at the 80 most selective U.S. colleges, more students came from families in the top 1% of income than from the bottom 40%.

2012 Presidential Election – A highly contested race centered on economic inequality, healthcare, and taxation policies.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) – A Supreme Court ruling allowing corporations, unions, and advocacy groups to spend unlimited funds on elections, leading to the rise of super-PACs and "dark money" in politics.

Supreme Court Decision on the Affordable Care Act (2012) – The Court narrowly upheld Obama’s healthcare law, a key issue in the election.

Electoral Results – Obama won with 65,915,796 popular votes and 332 electoral votes, defeating Romney’s 60,933,500 popular votes and 206 electoral votes.

Demographic Shifts – Obama’s coalition, which included significant Latino and urban voter support, contributed to his victory.

Rise of Super-PACs – The 2012 election was the most expensive in history to that point, with over $2 billion spent.

Obama’s Campaign Platform – Focused on economic recovery, healthcare reform, and foreign policy.

Romney’s Campaign Platform – Promised to repeal the Affordable Care Act, cut domestic spending, and reduce taxes.

Citizens United Supreme Court Opinion (2010) – Justice Kennedy’s majority opinion argued that corporations and organizations have the same free speech rights as individuals, rejecting government restrictions on political spending

Government Shutdown (2013): Congressional Republicans forced a 16-day shutdown in October 2013 due to opposition to the Affordable Care Act.

House Leadership Struggles (2015): Speaker John Boehner was unseated by rebellious House Republicans, leading to Paul Ryan’s appointment as Speaker.

DACA (2012): Obama’s Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy granted temporary relief from deportation and work permits to undocumented minors.

Environmental Executive Actions: Obama took measures to protect Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), expand national monuments, and promote renewable energy efforts.

DREAM Act (Proposed, not passed): Would have provided a path to citizenship for undocumented youth meeting educational or military service requirements.

DACA (2012): Executive policy allowing renewable two-year protections from deportation for eligible undocumented minors.

Environmental Executive Orders: Policies aimed at protecting national lands and reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Immigration Surge (2018) – Foreign-born persons in the U.S. reached over 13% of the population, a level not seen since the 1920s.

Mexican Migration Reversal (Since 2009) – More people were migrating from the U.S. to Mexico than vice versa due to declining fertility rates and an improving Mexican economy.

2016 Presidential Campaign – Immigration policies, including the proposal for a border wall, became a major issue during this election cycle.

Bushwick Gentrification – A demographic shift in Brooklyn’s Bushwick neighborhood, where historically Italian and Polish communities, along with Latino immigrants, faced displacement due to rising property values and new residents.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013) – Supreme Court ruling that struck down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act, allowing states with histories of racial discrimination to change voting laws without federal oversight.

2016 Presidential Election – Minority voter turnout declined in some swing states, leading critics to blame voter suppression measures enabled by Shelby County v. Holder.

Arizona Immigration Law (2010) – Legislation signed by Jan Brewer that allowed local police to check immigration status, leading to accusations of racial profiling.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Supreme Court decision that granted constitutional protection to same-sex marriage under the Fourteenth Amendment.

NSA Surveillance Scandal (2013) – Snowden’s leaks revealed widespread digital surveillance programs, leading to a debate over privacy vs. security.

USA Freedom Act (2015) – Congressional legislation that aimed to limit some of the NSA’s most aggressive surveillance tactics but did not fully dismantle its powers.

Internet Expansion (1997–2017) – Rapid growth of internet access, with household connectivity rising from 18% in 1997 to over 80% by 2017.

Voter ID Laws Debate (2012–Present) – Conservative proponents argue voter ID laws prevent fraud, while opponents claim they disproportionately suppress low-income and minority voters.

Arizona Immigration Bill (2010) – Controversial law allowing police to question individuals suspected of being undocumented immigrants.

NSA Surveillance Programs:

PRISM – A program that collected digital communications from U.S. internet companies.

Bluffdale, Utah Data Center – A massive NSA facility designed to store up to 12 exabytes of data.

International Monitoring – NSA surveillance of overseas web traffic, including tapping Angela Merkel’s phone.

Supreme Court Case: Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Court ruling legalizing same-sex marriage, with Justice Anthony Kennedy writing the majority opinion.

Government Social Welfare Spending (1930–2016) – A graph illustrating the rise of U.S. government spending on social programs, reflecting growing costs and political influence of beneficiaries.

2014 Midterm Elections – A U.S. election in which Republicans expanded their majority in the House of Representatives and gained control of the Senate, largely due to public disillusionment with the political system.

Great Recession (2007-2009) – A severe global economic downturn triggered by the U.S. housing market collapse and financial crisis, leading to widespread job losses and home foreclosures.

2008 Financial Crisis – A financial collapse that resulted in significant job losses and home foreclosures, leaving many Americans struggling economically even after some industries recovered.

Wars in the Middle East – Refers to the prolonged U.S. military involvement in conflicts such as the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan, which strained the all-volunteer military with repeated deployments.

Arab Spring (2011) – A series of anti-government protests and uprisings in the Arab world, heavily influenced by social media activism.

Occupy Movement (2011) – A political movement against economic inequality and corporate influence in politics, with protests occurring across the U.S. and globally.

Black Lives Matter Movement (2015) – A social movement advocating against police brutality and systemic racism, sparked by multiple high-profile killings of Black individuals by law enforcement.

Minnesota Police Shooting (July 7, 2016) – An incident where a Black man was shot by police during a traffic stop, with the aftermath captured and shared online, igniting national outrage.

Social Media Platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat) – Online platforms that played a significant role in shaping political discourse, activism, and media consumption in the digital age.

Computer Algorithms – Automated systems that curate and personalize news content, contributing to political polarization by reinforcing confirmation bias.

Pamphlets and Broadsides (Late 18th and Early 19th Century) – Historical forms of media used to spread political opinions and information, compared to the fragmented and partisan nature of modern digital media.

Libyan Civil War (2011–present) – A conflict that erupted after Qaddafi's fall, leading to instability and the Benghazi attack.

Benghazi Attack (2012) – An attack on a U.S. diplomatic compound in Libya that killed four Americans, including the U.S. ambassador.

Syrian Civil War (2011–present) – A complex conflict between Assad's government and various rebel factions, including ISIS.

Annexation of Crimea (2014) – Russia's military seizure of Crimea from Ukraine, escalating tensions with the West.

Rise of ISIS (2014–2018) – The extremist group's territorial expansion and subsequent military defeat by international forces.

Iran Nuclear Deal (2015) – An agreement in which Iran agreed to limit its nuclear program in exchange for lifted economic sanctions.

"The New Jim Crow" (2010, by Michelle Alexander) – A book describing the U.S. criminal justice system as a form of racial control, cited in discussions about mass incarceration.

War on Drugs – A decades-long U.S. policy that led to strict sentencing laws and disproportionately affected minority communities.

2016 Democratic Primary – A contested race between Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders, highlighting divisions within the Democratic Party between progressives and centrists.

2016 Republican Primary – Trump defeated 16 other candidates, using aggressive rhetoric and an outsider persona to appeal to disaffected voters.

WikiLeaks Email Scandal – Thousands of emails from the Clinton campaign were leaked, allegedly by Russian hackers, fueling controversy and conspiracy theories.

Russian Election Interference – U.S. intelligence agencies concluded that Russia interfered in the election through hacking and social media disinformation to sow discord.

FBI’s Clinton Email Investigation – A probe into Clinton’s use of a private email server while serving as Secretary of State, which was briefly reopened before the election.

Electoral College Outcome – Although Clinton won the popular vote by nearly three million, Trump secured the presidency by winning key battleground states Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

2016 Presidential Debates – Marked by hostility, with Trump threatening to investigate Clinton and Clinton calling Trump unfit for office.

Trump’s Populist Appeal – He gained support from rural and economically distressed voters by positioning himself against political elites and globalization.

“Basket of Deplorables” Controversy – Clinton’s remark that half of Trump’s supporters were “racist, sexist, homophobic, xenophobic” was widely criticized and became a rallying point for Trump’s base.

Deepening Political Polarization – The election revealed stark divisions between urban and rural voters, as well as between social classes.

Trump’s “Make America Great Again” Slogan – A campaign message appealing to economic and nationalist sentiments.

Steve Bannon’s 2016 Statement on Populism – Compared Trump’s movement to Andrew Jackson’s populism, emphasizing working-class resentment toward global elites.

WikiLeaks Leaked Emails – Documents from Clinton’s campaign chair John Podesta, fueling political controversy.