Chapter 2
### Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe Principles of Child Development:
- Predictable Sequence: Development usually follows a predictable sequence. For instance, children walk before they run and understand whole numbers before fractions.
- Individual Rates: Children develop at different rates. Some may reach developmental milestones earlier or later than their peers.
- Growth Spurts and Plateaus: Development often includes periods of rapid growth followed by slower periods. Sometimes children might show temporary regression before making significant progress.
- Heredity and Environment Interaction: Both genetic makeup and environmental factors shape development. While genetic predispositions set the stage, environmental conditions like nutrition and quality of preschool experiences also play crucial roles.
2. Brain Development and Its Influence:
- The brain's development affects children's thinking and learning. As children grow, their brain undergoes structural and functional changes that influence cognitive abilities.
3. Piaget’s Theory in Practice:
- Apply Piaget’s stages of cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational) to tailor classroom activities and instructions to match students' cognitive levels.
4. Vygotsky’s Theory in Practice:
- Use Vygotsky’s concepts of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding to support students’ learning. This involves providing support just beyond their current abilities and gradually reducing it as they gain proficiency.
5. Language Development and Diverse Needs:
- Understand how language develops during school years and adapt instruction to meet diverse linguistic needs. This might include differentiated instruction for varying levels of language proficiency and incorporating strategies to support English Language Learners (ELLs).
Case Study: Carrots
Scenario:
- Mrs. Bennington's student, Ben, struggles with understanding that carrots can be both plants and food, while another student, Keisha, grasps this concept easily.
Suggestions for Mrs. Bennington:
1. Clarify the Concept: Explain to Ben that carrots are plants because they grow from the ground and have leaves, but they are also food because we eat them.
2. Use Visuals and Examples: Show pictures or real examples of carrot plants and discuss how parts of plants, like roots, can be edible.
3. Group Exploration: Break the class into small groups to explore different plants and their uses, facilitating discussions and hands-on activities to reinforce the concept.
General Principles of Human Development:
1. Predictable Sequence: Development generally follows a set sequence, though the exact timing can vary.
2. Different Rates: Children reach developmental milestones at their own pace.
3. Growth Patterns: Development often includes spurts and plateaus, with occasional regressions.
4. Interaction of Heredity and Environment: Genetic and environmental factors interact to shape development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory:
1. The Child: Individual characteristics and developmental stages influence behavior.
2. Microsystem: Immediate environments like family and school affect and are affected by the child.
3. Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems, such as family and school influences, impact development.
4. Exosystem: Broader systems like parents' work environments and community resources indirectly affect the child.
5. Macrosystem: Cultural values and societal norms shape the broader environment influencing development.
6. Chronosystem: Changes over time in the child’s environment and in societal conditions impact development.
Culture and Development:
- Culture influences various aspects of a child's development, including family practices, educational opportunities, and societal expectations. It provides a framework for what is considered normal and guides behaviors and beliefs.
The brain plays a crucial role in children's cognitive development and learning, and its structure and functionality significantly influence how children think and learn. Here's a summary of how brain development impacts these processes:
1. Brain Structure and Function Specialization:
- Brain Parts: Different areas of the brain have specialized functions. Lower and middle brain structures handle basic physiological processes and perceptual skills, while the cortex (especially the prefrontal cortex) is involved in higher-order functions such as attention, planning, reasoning, and creativity.
- Hemispheric Specialization: The left hemisphere is generally more involved in language and logical thinking, while the right hemisphere handles visual and spatial tasks. However, both hemispheres work together and contribute to most cognitive tasks.
2. Synaptic and Neuronal Changes:
- Synaptic Changes: Learning involves the strengthening of existing synapses and the formation of new ones. Sometimes, learning also involves eliminating less useful synapses through a process called synaptic pruning.
- Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons and glial cells can also contribute to cognitive development. The efficiency of brain function often correlates with the density of connections between brain regions.
3. Developmental Changes:
- Early Development: Neurons form synapses rapidly after birth, largely driven by genetic programming. Synaptogenesis (formation of synapses) peaks in early childhood and is followed by synaptic pruning, which refines neural connections based on experience and utility.
- Myelination: The process of myelination (the development of a fatty sheath around neurons) improves the speed and efficiency of neural transmission. This process continues through adolescence and early adulthood.
- Adolescent Brain Changes: Hormonal changes during puberty affect brain maturation, impacting areas like attention, planning, and impulse control. This can temporarily affect adolescents’ cognitive abilities until brain function stabilizes.
4. Brain Plasticity:
- Lifelong Adaptability: The brain remains adaptable throughout life, with the ability to reorganize and form new connections. Sensitive periods exist for some types of learning, such as language and visual input, but there is no single "best" time for learning most skills. Brain plasticity ensures that learners of all ages can acquire new knowledge and skills with practice and support.
5. Practical Implications for Learning:
- Avoid Overloading: For young children, it's important to provide reasonable stimulation without overwhelming them with excessive information or activities. There is no evidence that cramming early years with intensive learning experiences benefits long-term cognitive development.
- Adolescent Support: Adolescents need structured guidance as their brains mature. They may benefit from additional support to navigate their developing cognitive abilities.
- Lifelong Learning: Embrace the brain's plasticity and remain optimistic about learning at any age. With effort and practice, people can continue to develop a wide range of skills and knowledge throughout their lives.
Understanding these aspects of brain development can help tailor educational practices to support effective learning and cognitive growth at various stages of development.
Let's tackle the three logical problems first:
1. Beads Problem:
- Question: Are there more brown beads or more wooden beads?
- Answer: There are more wooden beads. There are 10 brown beads and 2 white beads, making a total of 12 wooden beads. Since 12 (wooden beads) is more than 10 (brown beads), there are more wooden beads than brown beads.
2. Children and Mammals:
- Statement: If all children are human beings, and all human beings are mammals, then must all children be mammals?
- Answer: Yes. If all children are human beings and all human beings are mammals, then it logically follows that all children must be mammals.
3. Children and Candy:
- Statement: If all children are basketballs, and all basketballs are candy, then must all children be candy?
- Answer: Yes, according to the logic of the statements. If all children are basketballs, and all basketballs are candy, then all children must be candy. However, in reality, this is clearly not true.
### Applying Piaget’s Theory to Classroom Practice
Piaget’s Theory Highlights:
1. Children as Active Learners: Children actively seek new knowledge and experiences.
2. Constructivism: Children build knowledge through their own experiences and interactions.
3. Assimilation and Accommodation: These processes help children adapt their existing schemes to new information.
4. Role of Physical and Social Interaction: Both are crucial for cognitive development.
5. Equilibration: The process of balancing existing knowledge with new experiences drives cognitive development.
6. Stage-Based Development: Cognitive abilities develop in stages, each providing a foundation for the next.
Classroom Practice Application:
- Create Active Learning Opportunities: Encourage hands-on activities and experiments. For instance, in a science lesson, allow students to explore physical properties of materials through experimentation.
- Encourage Exploration: Design tasks that stimulate students’ curiosity and help them build on their existing knowledge. For example, introduce new concepts in relation to what students already understand.
- Induce Disequilibrium: Present problems or scenarios that challenge students’ current thinking, prompting them to think critically and adapt their understanding.
- Support Social Interaction: Facilitate group discussions and collaborative activities where students can share and debate different perspectives, helping them refine their reasoning.
- Recognize Stage-Specific Abilities: Tailor teaching methods to the cognitive stage of your students. For younger students, focus on concrete tasks and gradually introduce more abstract concepts as they mature.
By applying these principles, you can help students develop their logical reasoning and problem-solving skills in alignment with Piaget’s theory.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development, while groundbreaking and influential, has faced significant critique and revision over time. Here are the key critiques and contemporary extensions of Piaget's ideas:
### Critiques of Piaget's Theory
1. Vague Concepts: Some concepts in Piaget’s theory, such as assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration, are criticized for being too vague and lacking empirical precision (Chapman, 1988; diSessa, 2006; Klahr, 2001). This vagueness makes it challenging to apply these concepts consistently across different studies and contexts.
2. Overemphasis on Physical Interaction: Piaget placed significant importance on physical interaction with the environment as a driver of cognitive development. However, research has shown that children with physical disabilities, who cannot physically interact with their environment, still develop cognitive skills through observation and other means (Bebko et al., 1992; Brainerd, 2003).
3. Stage-Specific Limitations: Piaget’s theory of cognitive stages has been shown to underestimate the capabilities of children at various stages:
- Preschoolers: Research has demonstrated that preschoolers can perform tasks involving class inclusion and conservation earlier than Piaget suggested (Beck et al., 2006; Goswami & Pauen, 2005).
- Elementary Students: Some elementary students can grasp abstract ideas and proportions when these concepts are tied to concrete examples (Empson, 1999; Van Dooren et al., 2005).
- Adolescents: Formal operational thought, as described by Piaget, tends to develop more gradually and is not consistently applied across different contexts or subjects (Flieller, 1999; Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Adolescents often need concrete examples to understand abstract concepts effectively (Blair & Schwartz, 2012; Kaminski & Sloutsky, 2012).
4. Variability in Cognitive Development: Piaget’s model suggests a universal and structured progression through cognitive stages, but recent research indicates considerable variability in cognitive development, influenced by individual experiences and educational interventions (Protzco et al., 2013).
5. Cultural and Contextual Factors: Piaget's studies were primarily conducted with Swiss children, which may not represent cognitive development universally. Cultural differences can affect cognitive development; for example, children from cultures with complex traditional practices (e.g., weaving, pottery) may develop cognitive skills related to these practices earlier than children from different cultural backgrounds (Maynard & Greenfield, 2003; Price-Williams et al., 1969).
### Contemporary Extensions
1. Neo-Piagetian Theories: These theories build on Piaget’s ideas but offer more flexibility and incorporate new findings. They acknowledge the role of working memory and suggest that cognitive development may occur in specific content domains with stagelike progressions (Case, 1985; Case & Okamoto, 1996). This perspective allows for multiple pathways of development and varying rates of skill acquisition (Fischer & Daley, 2007).
2. Clinical Method as an Assessment Tool: Piaget’s clinical method remains valuable for assessing children’s cognitive development. Modern applications involve using diverse tasks and probing children’s reasoning to gain insights into their cognitive processes, not just sticking to traditional Piagetian tasks (Liben & Myers, 2007).
3. Hands-on and Concrete Experiences: While Piaget emphasized the importance of hands-on exploration, contemporary research supports combining these experiences with guided instruction to help students draw appropriate conclusions and understand abstract concepts more effectively (Fujimura, 2001; Hardy et al., 2006).
4. Sociocognitive Conflict and Social Interaction: Recent insights highlight the importance of sociocognitive conflict and social interaction in cognitive development. Interaction with peers and adults can create disequilibrium, prompting cognitive growth and revision of understandings (Johnson & Johnson, 2009b; Linn, 2008). This aspect aligns with Vygotsky’s theory, which emphasizes the role of social interaction in cognitive development.
Overall, while Piaget's foundational work has been crucial in understanding cognitive development, contemporary research and theory offer a more nuanced view that accounts for individual variability, cultural differences, and the interplay between social interaction and cognitive growth.
Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development emphasizes the significant role that social interactions and cultural context play in children's cognitive growth. Unlike Piaget, who focused on children's independent explorations and self-constructed understandings, Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is heavily influenced by adult guidance and cultural tools. Here’s how Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to classroom practice:
### Applying Vygotsky’s Theory to Classroom Practice
1. Scaffolding and Support
- Concept: Scaffolding involves providing temporary support to students as they learn new concepts or skills, which is gradually removed as they become more competent.
- Classroom Application: Teachers can use scaffolding by breaking tasks into smaller, manageable steps and offering support through hints, questions, or guidance. For example, when teaching a complex math problem, a teacher might start by modeling the solution and then provide partial guidance as students work through similar problems.
2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Concept: The ZPD represents the range of tasks a child can perform with the help of more knowledgeable individuals but cannot yet perform independently.
- Classroom Application: Teachers should aim to design tasks that are within each student’s ZPD to maximize learning. This might involve pairing students with different skill levels to work collaboratively or using differentiated instruction to provide various levels of support and challenge.
3. Dynamic Assessment
- Concept: This approach assesses a student’s potential for learning by evaluating their ability to perform tasks with assistance, rather than solely assessing their current abilities.
- Classroom Application: Teachers can use dynamic assessment by observing how students approach tasks with varying levels of support and adjust their instruction based on these observations. For instance, during a writing assignment, a teacher might provide feedback and observe how students incorporate it into their work.
4. Use of Cultural Tools
- Concept: Vygotsky believed that cultural tools (both physical and symbolic) are essential for cognitive development.
- Classroom Application: Teachers should integrate cultural tools into their instruction. For example, using graphic organizers to help students plan their writing, or employing mathematical symbols and tools in problem-solving activities. Incorporating diverse cultural perspectives and tools can also enrich the learning experience.
5. Language and Thought
- Concept: Language plays a crucial role in cognitive development by mediating thought processes.
- Classroom Application: Teachers should encourage self-talk and private speech, allowing students to verbalize their thought processes. This can be facilitated through think-aloud strategies during problem-solving or by encouraging students to discuss their reasoning with peers.
6. Social Interaction and Collaboration
- Concept: Social interactions and collaborative activities help children internalize knowledge and develop cognitive skills.
- Classroom Application: Implement group work and peer collaboration in the classroom. For example, group projects, discussions, and collaborative problem-solving tasks enable students to share ideas, negotiate meanings, and learn from each other.
7. Play and Imaginative Activities
- Concept: Play is seen as a vital component of cognitive development, allowing children to explore and practice complex skills.
- Classroom Application: Incorporate play-based learning and imaginative activities into the curriculum. This can include role-playing scenarios, games that involve problem-solving, and creative arts activities. Such activities allow students to experiment with different roles and strategies in a low-stakes environment.
8. Cultural and Contextual Relevance
- Concept: Children’s cognitive development is influenced by the cultural and contextual relevance of the tasks they engage in.
- Classroom Application: Tailor instructional materials and activities to be culturally relevant and contextually meaningful for students. This might involve integrating students' backgrounds and experiences into lesson plans and using examples and references that resonate with their cultural contexts.
By applying these principles of Vygotsky’s theory in the classroom, educators can create a supportive learning environment that leverages social interactions, cultural tools, and appropriate challenges to foster cognitive development.
This critique of Vygotsky’s theory highlights several key strengths and limitations of his approach to cognitive development.
### Strengths:
1. Emphasis on Cultural Influence: Vygotsky’s theory is highly regarded for its focus on the role of culture in cognitive development. It underscores how culture shapes thought processes, guiding children’s attention and interpretation of experiences. This perspective helps educators understand the diversity in students' cognitive processes and challenges in learning environments (Portes & Salas, 2011; Smagorinski, 2013).
2. Social Construction of Meaning: Vygotsky’s ideas on social construction of meaning and mediated learning experiences are insightful. The example of the mother helping her child understand the concept of saber-toothed tigers through conversation illustrates how adults can scaffold children’s learning by guiding their thought processes and helping them make connections (Feuerstein et al., 2010).
3. Support for Self-Talk and Inner Speech: Research supporting Vygotsky’s views on self-talk and inner speech adds practical value to his theory. The transition from audible self-talk to inner speech and the role of self-talk in challenging tasks is supported by contemporary studies (Bivens & Berk, 1990; Berk, 1994). This insight is useful for understanding cognitive development and its application in educational settings.
4. Scaffolding and Guided Participation: The concepts of scaffolding and guided participation build on Vygotsky’s theory by providing practical strategies for supporting student learning. Scaffolding techniques, such as providing structure, feedback, and support, align well with Vygotsky’s idea of assisting learners within their zone of proximal development (Wood et al., 1976; Collins, 2006).
### Limitations:
1. Vagueness and Speculativeness: Vygotsky’s descriptions of developmental processes are often criticized for being vague and speculative. This lack of specificity makes it difficult to test and verify his theories empirically (Gauvain, 2001; Haenan, 1996; Moran & John-Steiner, 2003). This limitation affects the theory’s applicability and practical use in research.
2. General Stages of Development: Although Vygotsky described stages of development, his portrayal of these stages was general and lacked detailed explanations. This broad approach can be less useful for understanding specific developmental milestones and differences among individuals (Vygotsky, 1997).
3. Difficulties in Empirical Testing: The difficulty in empirically testing Vygotsky’s theory is a significant limitation. The abstract nature of some of his concepts poses challenges for researchers trying to verify or disprove his ideas (Gauvain, 2001; Haenan, 1996). This limitation affects the theory’s robustness and its integration into educational practice.
4. Cultural Variability: While Vygotsky’s theory acknowledges the influence of culture, it may not fully account for the vast diversity within and across cultures. The theory’s emphasis on cultural context may sometimes overlook individual differences and variations within cultural groups (Liben & Myers, 2007).
In summary, Vygotsky’s theory offers valuable insights into the role of culture in cognitive development and provides practical strategies for supporting learners. However, its vagueness and challenges in empirical testing highlight areas for further development and refinement in educational research and practice.
Contrasting Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
Piaget and Vygotsky, both pivotal figures in developmental psychology, offer contrasting yet complementary views on cognitive development. While their theories share some commonalities, such as the belief that children develop increasingly complex thinking processes with age and experience, they diverge significantly in their views on the sources and mechanisms of cognitive growth.
### Similarities
1. Developmental Progression: Both Piaget and Vygotsky agree that cognitive development involves acquiring increasingly sophisticated thinking processes. They recognize that children are ready for certain experiences at specific developmental stages.
2. Role of Challenge: Both theorists emphasize the importance of challenge in cognitive development. Piaget talks about "disequilibrium," where new information disrupts existing schemas and prompts cognitive development. Vygotsky focuses on the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), where tasks can be accomplished with guidance and support, promoting cognitive growth.
3. Readiness for Learning: Both acknowledge that children are ready for some learning experiences but not others at various developmental stages. Piaget speaks of the need for cognitive structures to assimilate and accommodate new information, while Vygotsky highlights tasks within the ZPD that require external support.
### Differences
1. Role of Self vs. Guided Exploration:
- Piaget: Emphasizes self-exploration and discovery. Cognitive development is seen as a result of the child’s active efforts to interact with their environment and resolve cognitive conflicts.
- Vygotsky: Highlights the importance of guided exploration and instruction. Adults and more knowledgeable peers play a crucial role in mediating experiences and providing support during challenging tasks.
2. Influence of Culture:
- Piaget: Acknowledges that culture may influence cognitive development but does not systematically incorporate it into his theory. His focus is more on universal stages of cognitive development.
- Vygotsky: Posits that culture is central to cognitive development. Culture shapes the specific skills and knowledge children acquire, and cognitive processes are internalized versions of social interactions embedded in cultural contexts.
3. Role of Language:
- Piaget: Views language as a tool that enhances cognitive development by providing labels and symbols that help in mental representation. Language aids in understanding diverse perspectives.
- Vygotsky: Sees language as fundamental to cognitive growth. He argues that cognitive processes are internalized versions of verbal social interactions. Language, through self-talk and inner speech, is crucial for self-guidance and understanding cultural meanings.
### Contemporary Perspectives
Modern theorists often integrate aspects of both Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories. They recognize the importance of language and cultural context in cognitive development, as well as the value of both self-directed exploration and guided learning. This integrated approach helps in understanding how cognitive development is influenced by a complex interplay of individual exploration and cultural mediation.
Developmental Changes in Language During the School Years
During the school years, children's language skills undergo significant development, encompassing advancements in vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatic abilities. Here's a summary of how language develops and how to adapt instruction for diverse linguistic abilities:
### 1. Language Development Trends by Grade Level
- Grades K–2 (Ages 5–7)
- Characteristics:
- Knowledge of 8,000–14,000 words by age 6.
- Difficulty understanding complex sentences and abstract concepts.
- Literal interpretation of language and basic story-telling abilities.
- Occasional misuse of irregular word forms and basic conversation etiquette.
- Instructional Strategies:
- Read age-appropriate storybooks to build vocabulary.
- Provide gentle corrective feedback on word usage.
- Enhance listening skills through interactive activities.
- Encourage storytelling about personal experiences.
- Grades 3–5 (Ages 8–10)
- Characteristics:
- Improved understanding of irregular word forms.
- Ability to engage in sustained conversations and construct stories with plots.
- Emerging linguistic creativity and word play.
- Instructional Strategies:
- Teach irregular word forms explicitly.
- Incorporate group discussions and storytelling in lessons.
- Encourage jokes and rhymes to develop an understanding of figurative language.
- Consult speech-language specialists if needed.
- Grades 6–8 (Ages 11–13)
- Characteristics:
- Expanded vocabulary related to academic subjects.
- Ability to understand simple figurative language and proverbs.
- Increased metalinguistic awareness and proficiency in expository writing.
- Instructional Strategies:
- Introduce new vocabulary, including subject-specific terms.
- Conduct structured debates to explore complex issues.
- Encourage writing with guidance and feedback.
- Explore the nature of language and its underlying meanings.
- Grades 9–12 (Ages 14–18)
- Characteristics:
- Advanced vocabulary related to academic disciplines.
- Subtle refinements in syntax and a general understanding of figurative language.
- Improved expository writing skills with practice and feedback.
- Instructional Strategies:
- Use discipline-specific terminologies regularly.
- Explore complex syntactic structures and figurative language.
- Encourage analytical writing and discussion of literary and poetic themes.
- Support the use of native dialects in informal contexts while promoting Standard English for formal settings.
### 2. Adapting Instruction for Diverse Linguistic Abilities
For Students with Specific Language Impairments:
- Provide individualized support tailored to the specific language difficulties.
- Use visual aids and hands-on activities to reinforce language concepts.
- Implement speech-language therapy or specialized interventions as needed.
For Students from Diverse Cultural Backgrounds:
- Recognize and value different dialects and cultural communication styles.
- Incorporate culturally relevant materials and examples into lessons.
- Be sensitive to different cultural practices regarding language use and interaction.
For English Language Learners (ELLs):
- Use scaffolding techniques such as visual supports, bilingual resources, and interactive activities.
- Promote language development through immersion strategies and bilingual education programs.
- Encourage the use of both the native language and English to facilitate learning and cultural integration.
For Bilingual Students:
- Support the development of both languages through enriched learning experiences.
- Leverage bilingualism to enhance cognitive and metalinguistic skills.
- Recognize and build upon the linguistic strengths students bring from their bilingual backgrounds.
By tailoring instruction to address these diverse needs, educators can support all students in achieving their full linguistic potential and effectively navigating the complexities of language development.
### Constructed-Response Question
#### A. Explanation of Cora's Reaction Using Piaget's Theory
Cora's strong reaction to the floating pumice can be explained using Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, particularly the concepts of schema and disequilibrium. In Piaget's theory, a schema is a mental structure that organizes knowledge and is used to understand and interpret information. Cora has developed a schema that stones sink in water based on her prior experiences with similar objects. When Mr. Fox demonstrates the pumice floating, it conflicts with her existing schema, causing disequilibrium—a state of cognitive imbalance where new information challenges her current understanding. This disequilibrium can lead to surprise and frustration as Cora struggles to reconcile her new observation with her previous knowledge. As Piaget suggested, such conflicts are a normal part of cognitive development and lead to assimilation (incorporating new information into existing schemas) or accommodation (modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information).
#### B. Explanation of Mr. Fox’s Intentional Presentation Using Piaget’s Theory
Mr. Fox's decision to present a phenomenon that surprises the children is rooted in Piaget's concept of disequilibrium and constructivist learning. By showing a stone that floats when the children expect it to sink, Mr. Fox creates a situation that challenges their existing schemas. This unexpected outcome promotes cognitive conflict, which is a key mechanism for encouraging accommodation—the process of adjusting one's schemas to fit new information. According to Piaget, such cognitive conflicts can stimulate curiosity and problem-solving, leading children to explore and construct a more accurate understanding of the world. By intentionally introducing a surprising element, Mr. Fox leverages this natural process of learning and adaptation, facilitating deeper cognitive development.
### Multiple-Choice Question
#### Best Approach According to Vygotsky’s Theory
c. Teach the concept of density, and explain that an object’s average density relative to water determines whether it floats or sinks.
Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the importance of scaffolding and support within a student's zone of proximal development (ZPD). High school students, who are capable of understanding more abstract concepts, would benefit from a direct explanation of the scientific principle of density. Teaching this concept allows students to understand the underlying reason why different stones behave differently in water, helping them to construct a more sophisticated and accurate understanding of physical phenomena. This approach aligns with Vygotsky’s belief that cognitive development is supported by providing appropriate and targeted instructional support that challenges students just beyond their current level of understanding.