Ap psychology unit 2

Perception vs. Sensation

• Sensation:
  • Definition: Detecting a stimulus, raw data from sensory receptors.
• Perception:
  • Definition: Interpreting a stimulus, giving meaning to sensory information.

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

• Top-Down Processing:

  • Utilizes prior knowledge and experiences to interpret information.
  • Efficient and quick; helpful for familiar or simple stimuli.
  • Example: Proofreader's illusion, where mistakes go unnoticed.

• Bottom-Up Processing:

  • Builds perception from the ground up; used for complex or unfamiliar stimuli.
  • Processing takes longer; requires organizing and interpreting incoming information without prior knowledge.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas:

  • Definition: Mental frameworks built from past experiences; help organize our environment.
  • Example: Expecting certain activities at a birthday party based on past experiences.

• Perceptual Sets:

  • Definition: Mental shortcuts for quickly interpreting experiences based on expectations or emotions.
  • Can lead to skewed perceptions depending on mood.

Influences on Perception

• Internal Factors: Culture, mood, emotions, expectations.
• External Factors: Environment affects perception.
  • Example: Different backgrounds may affect optical illusion susceptibility (e.g., the Mueller-Lyer illusion).

Attention and Perception

• Selective Attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus while tuning out others.
  • Example: Engaging in conversation despite background noise.
• Divided Attention: Balancing focus among multiple stimuli.
• Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice visible stimuli when focused elsewhere.
• Change Blindness: Not noticing changes in the environment.

Apparent Movement

• Stroboscopic Motion: Illusion of movement from rapidly shown static images.
• Phi Phenomenon: Lights blink in a sequence appearing to move.
• Induced Movement: Stationary objects appear to move due to surrounding motion.
• Autokinetic Effect: Stationary light in the dark appears to move without visual context.

Gestalt Psychology Principles

• Figure and Ground:
  • Visual differentiation between the main object and background.
• Continuation: Following lines or paths naturally.
• Closure: Filling in missing information for a recognizable shape.
• Similarity: Perceiving similar objects as forming a group.
• Proximity: Objects close together are grouped together.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects are perceived as one unit.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues:

  • Convergence: Eyes turn inward for closer objects; outward for distant ones.
  • Retinal Disparity: Different views from each eye contribute to depth perception.

• Monocular Cues:

  • Relative Size: Closer objects appear larger.
  • Interposition: Overdrawing objects indicate depth.
  • Relative Height: Higher objects appear farther.
  • Shading and Contour: Highlights depth with texture and shading.
  • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance.
  • Motion Parallax: Closer objects appear to move faster than distant ones.

Perceptual Constancy

• Size Constancy: Recognizing objects as the same size regardless of distance.
• Color Constancy: Perceiving consistent colors under varying conditions.
• Shape Constancy: Identifying shapes regardless of perspective.
• Lightness Constancy: Maintaining perceived color under different lighting.

Cognition

• Definition: All forms of knowing and awareness including perceiving, reasoning, imagining, and problem-solving.
• Components: Concepts, prototypes, schemas.
• Schemas: Develop through assimilation (fitting new info into existing schemas) and accommodation (altering schemas for new info).

Executive Functions

• Cognitive processes for generating, organizing, and executing goal-directed behaviors.
• Skills: language, judgment, logic, reasoning.

Problem Solving Approaches

• Algorithms: Systematic step-by-step solutions.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts based on past experiences.
  • Representative Heuristic: Judging based on stereotypes.
  • Availability Heuristic: Decisions influenced by easily recalled examples.
• Mental Sets: Relying on past experiences in problem-solving, can limit creativity.

Priming and Framing

• Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

  • Repetition Priming: Familiarity increases recognition.
  • Semantic Priming: Related words influence interpretation.

• Framing: How information presentation influences interpretation.

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple solutions.
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to one best solution.
• Components of Creativity: Expertise, imaginative skills, willingness to embrace challenges, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment.

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler's Fallacy: Misbelief that past events affect future randomness.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing investment in a failing action due to prior resources.

Memory

• Definition: Information acquired through experiences, stored and retrieved over time.
• Types of Memory:
  • Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (Episodic and Semantic).
  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall (Procedural).

Memory Models

• Multi-Store Model:

  • Stages: Sensory Memory, Working Memory, Long-Term Memory.
  • Sensory Memory: Brief, large capacity (Iconic and Echoic).
  • Working Memory: Limited duration and capacity; involves maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
  • Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity, processes through consolidation.

• Working Memory Model: Components include the phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and central executive.

Retention and Forgetting

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid forgetting immediately after learning, slows over time.

• Encoding Failure: Inadequate storage due to distractions.

• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference influence memory retrieval.

• Retrieval Methods: Recall vs. Recognition.

• Factors influencing recall: Environment, mood, physical state.

Conclusion

• Memory and cognitive processes are closely linked, influencing perception, problem-solving, and creativity in various ways. Understanding their mechanisms enhances learning and effective recall strategies.