Chapter 5: Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov's Work: Classical conditioning is learned by associating an unconditioned stimulus (US) with a neutral stimulus (NS) until the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR). Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivated at the sound of a metronome after it was repeatedly paired with food.

• John B. Watson: Watson extended classical conditioning to emotional responses, notably in his study with "Little Albert," where a child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, frightening sound.

• Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning:

  • Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli like the CS.

  • Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli that don't signal the same outcome.

  • Acquisition: The phase during which the CR is learned.

  • Extinction: When the CS no longer triggers the CR.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the CR after a period of extinction.

  • Higher-Order Conditioning: A CS that can trigger a response as though it were an unconditioned stimulus.

  • Biological Preparedness: The idea that organisms are biologically predisposed to associate certain stimuli with certain responses, like taste aversions.

Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning involves learning based on the consequences of behavior, emphasizing voluntary behavior and reinforcement or punishment.

• Reinforcement and Punishment:

  • Reinforcement: Increases behavior (positive = adding something desirable, negative = removing something undesirable).

  • Punishment: Decreases behavior (positive = adding something aversive, negative = removing something pleasant).

  • Schedules of Reinforcement: Different patterns of reinforcement affect behavior differently, such as continuous (reinforced every time) or intermittent (reinforced occasionally), with the latter being more resistant to extinction.

  • Shaping and Chaining: Shaping uses successive approximations to reinforce behaviors gradually. Chaining involves reinforcing a sequence of actions.

  • Applied Behavior Analysis: The use of operant conditioning to modify behaviors in real-world settings (e.g., homes, schools).

  • Premack Principle: The idea that people (or animals) are more likely to perform a low-probability behavior if it’s followed by a high-probability one.

  • Token Economy: A system where tokens are earned and exchanged for desirable outcomes.

Observational Learning

• Albert Bandura's "Bobo Doll" Study: Bandura demonstrated that people (especially children) can learn by observing others’ behaviors and imitating them.

• Mirror Neurons: These neurons activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe others performing that action. This concept is key to understanding social learning.

• Modeling: The act of learning through observation and imitation, which requires attention, memory, motor skills, and motivation.

Cognitive Learning

• Insight Learning: Wolfgang Köhler’s work with chimpanzees demonstrated that problem-solving could occur suddenly through insight, not just trial and error.

• Latent Learning: Edward Tolman’s research with rats suggested that learning can happen without reinforcement, and only becomes apparent when there’s a reason to demonstrate it. He also proposed the idea of a cognitive map, a mental representation of the environment.