GP

Communication in Management 349

Perception

  • Perception is how we interpret and navigate the world, built from perceptual filters shaped by:

    • Personalities

    • Psychology

    • Experiences

    • Nurture vs. nature (hardwiring)

    • Cultural teaching about what to pay attention to

  • Perceptual filters influence how we take in stimuli and organize it to decide what to retain. This builds our individual perspectives; everyone has unique perceptual makeup.

  • Visual example discussed: a cartoon where three people see the same thing differently and believe they are absolutely right; highlights that from different perspectives, each view can seem correct.

  • Challenge in the workplace: why we do things the “right” way; sometimes traditions or old habits impede progress; better ways may exist.

  • Stimuli around us affect attention and perception: deadlines, upcoming events, holidays, sick loved ones, illnesses, etc. These stimuli influence what we pay attention to and how we rank information.

  • COVID-era behavior influenced attention to symptoms; mid-2020 heightened awareness of coughs/sneezes; some caution has persisted.

  • Process of perception:

    • Stimuli are received → attention is allocated (influenced by filters) → information is organized → interpretation occurs → memory/retention

    • At each stage, biases or errors can alter outcomes.

  • Survival mechanism: perception happens quickly to manage overload; we can still make mistakes or draw flawed conclusions.

  • Attribution processes: we try to explain others’ behaviors via internal vs external causes.

  • Common biases:

    • Defensive bias and fundamental attribution error: blaming others or external factors when we’re on the defense, often ignoring situational factors.

    • Self-serving bias: overestimating our own contributions to successes and blaming others/environment for failures.

  • Real-world examples (sports context, to illustrate perception and attribution):

    • Tomac vs Webb (2018 heat race): Tomac frustrated with a newer rider. Post-race comments illustrated selective perception based on personal expectations and status.

    • Musquin vs Tomac (2018 final-lap incident): Tomac painted Musquin as an unethical aggressor in the press, though the behavior is common in racing dynamics; people evaluated it through selective perception and attribution lenses.

    • Observations from social media comments showed multiple interpretations of the same event, reflecting different beliefs about causes, aggressiveness, and fairness.

  • Stages of attribution (for explaining observed behavior): observing, belief, and cause.

  • Media/outsider influence: media can shape perception by presenting partial information, causing gaps that people fill with prior beliefs.

  • Defensive considerations in management: recognizing when we’re being defensive and taking responsibility rather than leaping to conclusions.

  • Self-awareness tips:

    • Ask, “Why do I think this way?”

    • Consider alternative perspectives before judging.

Interpersonal communication processes

  • Core sequence: a message is encoded by the sender, transmitted via a channel, received by the receiver, who decodes it, and provides feedback.

  • Key components:

    • Message encoding

    • Communication channel (formal vs informal; rich vs lean; e.g., face-to-face vs text)

    • Decoding by the receiver (influenced by their filters)

    • Feedback to confirm understanding or request clarification

    • Noise that can distort the message at any point

  • Noise and jargon:

    • Noise: any interference with transmission or reception of the message

    • Jargon: specialized vocabulary that can hinder understanding if the receiver isn’t familiar with it

  • Channel selection considerations:

    • Form vs informal: memo/official letter vs watercooler talk or Snapchat

    • Timing and setting matter; choose moments and formats that increase clarity

    • If conflict is likely, consider postponing or choosing a medium that allows careful discussion (phone or video) rather than a rushed in-person exchange

  • Encoding/decoding challenges:

    • Poor packaging or timing reduces message effectiveness

    • Recipients may delay or misunderstand; ask clarifying questions

  • Communication modes in organizations:

    • Downward communication: from upper management to frontline employees

    • Upward communication: from frontline to management

    • Horizontal communication: among peers at the same level

    • Informal channels: grapevine, social media, casual conversations

    • Formal channels: officially sanctioned memos, emails, reports

  • Practical guidance:

    • Avoid over-reliance on informal channels for critical issues; use appropriate formal channels when needed

    • Office Space example: excessive memos for trivial matters can backfire; efficiency matters

    • Aim for consistency across channels to prevent mixed messages

One-on-one communication, coaching, and counseling

  • One-on-one communication uses coaching to improve on-the-job performance; counseling to address non-job-related issues affecting performance.

  • Distinction:

    • Coaching: focused on performance improvement and skill development related to work

    • Counseling: addressing personal or external factors affecting work performance; may require referring to resources

  • Managerial approach:

    • Use coaching to develop potential and performance

    • Use counseling when non-work issues are present; escalate to appropriate resources when possible

    • If counseling is needed, provide initial support and then refer to professional services when available

  • Nonverbal communication: movements, facial expressions, eye contact, posture

    • Nonverbal cues can significantly affect interpretation, especially in remote or masked settings

    • Masks during the pandemic underscored the importance of nonverbal signals in understanding intent and emotion

  • Improving one-on-one interactions:

    • Choose the right medium for the message

    • Carefully select words and tone to increase comprehension

    • Be a good listener; give the other person the benefit of the doubt in written communications where misinterpretation is common

    • When unsure, follow up with a phone call or video to reduce miscommunication

    • Provide and solicit feedback to ensure mutual understanding

Listening, feedback, and feedback quality

  • Oral vs written communication:

    • Oral communication allows observation of nonverbal cues; more nuance

    • Written communication is precise and straightforward but lacks nonverbal signals

  • Active listening: assume half the responsibility for successful communication by actively giving non-judgmental feedback to show understanding

    • Techniques: paraphrasing, summarizing, asking clarifying questions

    • Nonverbal cues: nodding, eye contact, leaning in

  • Empathetic listening: seek to understand the speaker’s perspective and frame of reference; respond with understanding and validation

  • Challenges with masking and remote delivery:

    • Masks can obscure facial cues, making empathetic listening harder

    • Remote lectures/communications can hinder interpretation of tone and intent

  • Practical takeaway for listening:

    • Be an active listener; demonstrate engagement through feedback

    • Use paraphrase and summary to confirm understanding

    • When in doubt, recap and ask if your interpretation is correct

Destructive vs constructive feedback

  • Destructive feedback:

    • Not truly helpful; tends to provoke negative or defensive reactions

    • Often disapproving and accusatory, which escalates tension

  • Constructive feedback:

    • Helpful, corrective, and encouraging

    • Immediate, specific, and problem-oriented

    • Framed in a way that supports improvement without shaming

  • Practical application:

    • Before giving feedback, calm down if upset; aim for a constructive tone

    • Focus on observable behaviors and outcomes rather than personality

    • Provide actionable steps or suggestions for improvement

Organizational-wide communication and reception

  • Goals: improve transmission (getting the message out) and reception (hearing what others feel and think)

  • Modes of organizational communication:

    • Use consistent channels to avoid mixed messages across Snapchat, emails, meetings, etc.

    • Balance formal channels (official memos) with appropriate informal channels when suitable

  • Organizational silence:

    • When employees withhold information due to fear of blame or negative consequences

    • Remedies include anonymous hotlines, feedback forums, and a culture that supports speaking up

  • Improving reception:

    • Use surveys to gauge employee sentiment; ensure a representative sample size

    • If sampling is poor (e.g., 50/1000 responses), interpret results with caution

    • Complement surveys with frequent informal meetings, surprise visits, and personal blogs to gauge pulse

Feedback mechanisms and listening tools (noise reduction and signals)

  • Noise reduction strategies:

    • Simplify jargon; use plain language

    • Choose the simplest effective channel for the message

    • Reduce background noise during important conversations

  • Jargon reduction example:

    • In outreach, long acronyms and organization names (e.g., SBDC) can confuse listeners who aren’t familiar with the terms

  • The role of exemplars and teaching approach:

    • Great teachers simplify complex information to responsible levels, enabling broader understanding

Kilmann’s conflict resolution grid

  • The grid illustrates five approaches to resolving conflicts:

    • Avoid

    • Accommodate

    • Compete

    • Compromise

    • Collaborate

  • Axes/criteria:

    • Horizontal axis: the importance of the relationship (mercy, willingness to maintain the relationship)

    • Vertical axis: the importance of the issue (self-interest, justice)

    • Also consider how responsive we are to others' interests

  • Interpretive notes:

    • Different strategies are appropriate depending on the situation; no one strategy fits all

    • Avoidance should be time-bound (a clock): pause until emotions cool, information is gathered, or a mediator is present

    • Collaboration aims for a win-win-win outcome but can be time-consuming and sometimes impractical

    • Competing asserts strong stance on the issue; may harm relationships if overused

    • Compromising finds a middle ground; useful when time is short or stakes are moderate

    • Accommodating prioritizes relationships and uses flexibility; should be backed by justifiable reasons to avoid misuse as leverage for future demands

  • Practical guidance:

    • Consider subordinate goals: identify an objective valuable to both sides that transcends the dispute; can help resolve conflicts by focusing on shared goals

    • Subordinate goals are commonly depicted in films and stories where two antagonists team up against a common problem

  • Apply the grid thoughtfully:

    • Recognize when you default to a particular style and assess if another approach would yield better long-term outcomes

    • Use the grid to guide decisions, not to rigidly enforce a single tactic

Subordinate goals and practical implications

  • Subordinate goals: an objective that transcends a current dispute and aligns both parties toward a common good

  • Use cases:

    • Joint projects where both sides have high stakes

    • Scenarios requiring temporary cooperation to achieve a larger benefit

  • Real-world note:

    • The concept is often used in conflict resolution to create shared incentives and pave the way for sustainable collaboration

Closing notes and contact

  • The chapter concludes with practical guidance and encourages questions

  • Contact information:

    • Email: sc-hyphen shike at wiu.edu

    • Office hours available for scheduling

  • Encouragement:

    • Apply these communication principles to projects and interactions throughout the semester for better collaboration and outcomes

Quick reference to key numbers and terms (with LaTeX)

  • Perception process: Stimuli
    ightarrow Attention
    ightarrow Organization
    ightarrow Interpretation
    ightarrow Memory

  • Sports examples referenced: the 450 class and the 450s (elite racing classes)

  • Timeline references: 2018, 2020 (situations discussed occurred around these years)

  • Survey example for reception: ext{If } N=1000 ext{ employees and } n=50 ext{ respond} or n=50 ext{ of } N=50 (illustrates sampling considerations)

  • Kilmann’s grid concepts (no strict numeric formula, but the axes represent):

    • Relationship importance

    • Issue importance

  • Subordinate goals: ext{subordinate ext{ }goals} = ext{joint objective transcending the dispute}