PSYCH EXAM 2 NOTES

Week 4

Memory

• Definition: The ability to retain knowledge.

• Key Processes: Memory formation involves attention, sensation, perception, and learning.

• Usage: Memories are essential for thinking and problem-solving.

• Information Processing: The continuum from attention to problem-solving includes memory.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

• Components:

  • Sensory Memory: Initial stage, brief retention of sensory information.

  • Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds a small amount of information (7±2 bits) for a short time (30 seconds or less).

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Information stored for long durations.

• Maintenance Rehearsal: Process to keep information in STM.

• Attention: Important for transitions from sensory memory to short-term memory.

• Retrieval: Process of recalling stored information; some may be lost over time.

Stages of Memory

• Three Steps:

  • Encoding: Taking information and putting it into memory.

  • Storage: Retaining encoded information.

  • Retrieval: Recovering information stored in memory.

Types of Memory

• Sensory Memory: Brief holding area for sensory information.

  • Types include visual, acoustic, haptic.

• Working Memory: Active manipulation of information; includes:

  • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual images.

  • Phonological Loop: Auditory information.

  • Central Executive: Directs attention.

  • Episodic Buffer: Links different types of information.

• Long-Term Memory: Key types include:

  • Episodic: Personal experiences.

  • Semantic: General knowledge.

  • Procedural: Skills and tasks.

Forgetting

• Definition: Decrease in ability to retrieve memories.

• Adaptive Purpose: Helps focus on more important information.

• Interference: Competition between new and old memories can distort recall.

  • Proactive Interference: Old memories hinder the recall of new information.

  • Retroactive Interference: New memories hinder recall of old information.

• Motivated Forgetting: Deliberate lack of memory for negative experiences.

Memory Biological Basis

• Neural Changes: Long-term potentiation (LTP) enhances neuron communication.

• Engram: Biological traces of memory in the brain.

• Acetylcholine: Important for memory formation; drugs affecting ACh can impact memory.

Memory Improvement Techniques

• Context Dependency: Better recall in the environment where the information was learned.

• Distributed Practice: Spreading out learning is more effective than cramming.

• Pomodoro Technique: Study intensely for set periods followed by breaks.

• Interleaving: Mixing different subjects in study sessions improves retention.

• Mnemonics: Memory aids that associate new information with known concepts.

• Self-Testing: Testing oneself improves retention and learning.

Week 5

Learning

• Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

• Types of Learning:

  • Associative Learning: Forming connections between stimuli and behavior (Classical and Operant Conditioning).

  • Nonassociative Learning: Changes in response magnitude to a stimulus (Habituation and Sensitization).

Reflexes and Instincts

• Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., knee-jerk).

• Instincts: Inherent behaviors observed in species without training (e.g., imprinting).

  • Reflexes may lack flexibility; instincts can determine behavior sequences.

Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Behavior strength is influenced by its consequences.

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to occur again.

• Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior, can be positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus).

• Punishment: Weakens behavior, can also be positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus).

Observational Learning

• Definition: Learning by observing others.

• Key Factors: Attention, memory, reproduction, motivation are necessary for effective observational learning.

• Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrated children imitate aggressive behavior.

Cognitive Processes

• Thinking: Internal manipulation of information for problem-solving.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts in problem-solving, although they can lead to biases.

• Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding how human behavior evolved to solve problems encountered by our ancestors.