Psychology – History & Foundation (Chapter 1)

Psychology: The Study of Mental Processes and Behaviour

Learning Outcomes

• After studying this chapter you should be able to:

  • 1.1 Define psychology

  • 1.2 Discuss contributions of biopsychology & sociocultural perspective

  • 1.3 Outline the history of psychology

  • 1.4 Distinguish among major theoretical perspectives

  • 1.5 Describe educational pathways & employment settings for psychologists

Core Definition & Triple-Bookkeeping Principle

• Psychology: scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering, feeling) and behaviour

• Understanding a person requires simultaneous attention to:

  • Biology (neural, genetic, evolutionary factors)

  • Psychological experience (cognitions, emotions, motivations)

  • Cultural & historical context (norms, values, SES, era)
    → Erik Erikson’s “triple bookkeeping”

Positive Psychology Lens

• Shift from pathology to strengths-based approach (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi)

  • Studies hope, creativity, gratitude, flow, resilience, civic virtues, etc.

• Turia Pitt case study: severe burns over 65\% of body yet completes Ironman ( 3.8\text{ km} swim + 180\text{ km} ride + 42.2\text{ km} run )

  • Illustrates mindset, choice of positivity, resilience → embodiment of positive psychology principles

• Empirical findings

  • Social connection → ↑ happiness (Epley & Schroeder, 2014)

  • Money beyond basic needs ≠ ↑ happiness; prosocial spending → ↑ wellbeing (Dunn et al., 2008)

Boundaries & Borders of Psychology (LO 1.2)

Biopsychology / Behavioural Neuroscience

• Investigates physical basis of motivation, emotion, stress, memory

• Localisation of function

  • Marc Dax (1836): left-hemisphere lesions → aphasia

  • Broca’s area: speech production deficits

  • Wernicke’s area: comprehension deficits

• Modern view: distributed neural circuits; PET & fMRI map activity

• Genetics influence diverse behaviours (e.g., twin study N=35{,}035 → genes explain >50\% variance in dog ownership)

Sociocultural Perspective

• Behaviour shaped by ethnicity, religion, SES, occupation, etc.

• Cultural psychology → within-culture patterns; Cross-cultural psychology → compare similarities & differences

• Psychological anthropologists observe natural settings

History of Psychology (LO 1.3)

Philosophical Roots

• Free will vs determinism

• Mind–body problem: how mental events affect physical actions

• Nature vs nurture, reason vs emotion, etc.

Transition to Science

• 1879: Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology lab (Leipzig)

  • Uses systematic introspection → sensations & feelings as elements

• Structuralism (Edward Titchener)

  • Catalogue basic elements; strict lab introspection

• Functionalism (William James)

  • Focus on purpose/function of mental processes; influenced by Darwin

Major Theoretical Perspectives (LO 1.4)

1. Psychodynamic Perspective

• Key premises:

  • Behaviour determined by interconnected thoughts, feelings, wishes

  • Many processes are unconscious

  • Mental events may conflict → compromises & symptoms

• Sigmund Freud: psychoanalysis, case-study method, dream analysis; criticised for limited falsifiability but revived via empirical unconscious research

• Evidence links emotion-avoidance to health risks, efficacy of long-term psychodynamic therapy (Gaskin 2014)

2. Behaviourist Perspective

• Studied observable behaviour; environment (stimuli) → responses

• Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning (dogs salivate to tone)

• John Watson: psychology as behaviour science, tabula rasa claim

• B.F. Skinner: operant conditioning; reinforcement ↑ behaviour, punishment ↓ behaviour; timing critical

• Applications: biofeedback, smoking cessation, classroom management

3. Humanistic Perspective

• Emphasises uniqueness & free will; inherent drive to self-actualise

• Abraham Maslow: hierarchy of needs; cream-rises metaphor

• Carl Rogers: client-centred therapy; empathy, unconditional positive regard; incongruence between self-concept & ideal self causes distress

• Critique: optimism may ignore human capacity for harm

4. Cognitive Perspective

• Mind processes information like a computer; later brain-network metaphor

• Studies perception, memory, decision-making, language

  • Example: Cave 1997— faster naming of “old” pictures even 48 weeks later (implicit memory)

• Methods: experiments, reaction-time, computer modelling, neuro-imaging

• Roots in rationalist philosophy (Descartes) & Gestalt psychology

5. Evolutionary Perspective

• Behavioural tendencies evolved via natural selection (Darwin 1859)

• Concepts:

  • Adaptive traits improve survival/reproduction

  • Inclusive fitness: aid kin proportional to genetic relatedness (Hamilton)

• Comparative & deductive methods; growing experimental work

• Illustrations: separation anxiety adaptive for child safety; kin-care biases

Integrative View: Biopsychosocial Model

• Biological, psychological & social/cultural factors are inseparable; each perspective highlights part of the “elephant”

Education & Regulation of Psychologists (LO 1.5)

Australia

• Minimum 6-year APAC-accredited training

  • 4-year sequence → pathways: 5+1 internship, 2-year Masters, combined Masters/PhD or Doctorate

• Must register with AHPRA & Psychology Board of Australia; national exam since 2013

• Dual registration mobility with New Zealand

New Zealand

• Registration via NZ Psychologists Board; Masters + PGDip + supervised practice; registration recommended for private sector

Psychologists vs Psychiatrists

• Psychologists: behavioural science degrees; cannot prescribe meds

• Psychiatrists: medical doctors; can prescribe; often use biomedical model

Professional Associations

• APS (Australian Psychological Society, est. 1966) → 27{,}000+ members; colleges for 9 specialities

• NZPsS (New Zealand Psychological Society, est. 1967)

• AIPA (Australian Indigenous Psychologists Association, 2008) – advocates for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander psychologists, cultural safety, APS apology, etc.

Major Sub-disciplines & Sample Questions

• Biopsychology: How are memories stored neurally?

• Clinical: What causes depression? Effective therapies?

• Cognitive: How do people drive while day-dreaming?

• Community: How does volunteering affect elders’ wellbeing?

• Conservation: Why do people recycle?

• Counselling: How do interests guide career choice?

• Cross-Cultural: Do cultures experience pain similarly?

• Cultural: How do norms shape gender roles?

• Developmental: Can infants form long-term memories?

• Educational: Why do some teens drop out?

• Forensic: How does childhood abuse relate to adult crime?

• Health: Why continue smoking despite risks?

• Indigenous: Holistic SEWB frameworks (culture, kin, country)

• I/O: What leadership styles boost productivity?

• Personality: Gene–environment interaction in conscientiousness

• Positive: What fosters happiness & resilience?

• Social: Why do bystanders sometimes fail to help?

• Sport: Mental skills to prevent performance “choking”

Careers & Labour Market

• Psychologists work in hospitals, schools, military, HR, prisons, sports teams, research, private practice, etc.

• Job Outlook 2020: 36{,}100 psychologists → projected 44{,}500 by 2025; 52\% full-time; avg \$1{,}857/week; strong 20\% growth expected

• Graduate salaries (GCCA 2017):

  • Bachelor median \$57{,}600 ( 60\% employed within 4 months )

  • PG-Diploma \$75{,}000; Masters \$74{,}000; PhD \$80{,}800

• Medicare (AU) funds psychological services; NZ demand high for clinical psychologists

Critical Thinking & Ethical/Philosophical Connections

• Evaluate pseudoscience vs empirical evidence (hypnosis, lie detectors, vaccination myths)

• Free will vs determinism debates inform legal responsibility (Bryant, Holmes shootings example)

• Mind–body interactions evident in psychosomatic links (emotion suppression ↔ disease risk)

• Acculturative stress shows biopsychosocial interplay for migrants & refugees

Key Metaphors & Examples Recap

• Iceberg: conscious tip vs vast unconscious (psychodynamic)

• Black box / machine: stimulus → response (behaviourism)

• Cream rising: innate tendency to self-actualise (humanistic)

• Computer/brain network: mind as information processor (cognitive)

• Survival race: competition for resources & reproduction (evolutionary)

Summary Formulae & Numerical References

• 65\% body burns (Turia Pitt)

• Ironman distances: 3.8\text{ km} + 180\text{ km} + 42.2\text{ km}

• Genetic influence on dog ownership >50\%

• APS founded 1966; NZPsS 1967; Wundt lab 1879

Take-Home Integrations

• No single perspective fully explains behaviour; lenses are complementary

• Biopsychosocial model encourages multi-level analysis & culturally responsive practice

• Critical thinking is essential to separate science from pseudoscience and to apply evidence-based interventions