Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

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Studied by 11 people

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Chapter 10: Developing Countries

Freedom and Equality in the Developing World

Old versus New Terms

The old terms
- Third World: Cold War—era classification
- Global South: Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa
Current terminology
- Developing countries: lower- and middle-income countries

To Clarify…

Middle-income and low-income countries are both considered “developing countries”.
Countries that aren’t in “the rich countries club”.

Income Categories of Development

Middle-income countries: historically less-developed countries that have experienced significant economic growth and democratization
- Also known as newly industrialized countries (NICs)
- Per capital GDP (PPP) between $4,000 and $13,000
- Some are very comparable to developed democracies.
Lower-income countries: countries that lack significant economic development, political institutionalization, or both
- Sometimes also known as less developed countries (LDCs)
- Per capital GDP (PPP) below $4,000

Comparing Freedom and Equality in Developing Countries

Many differences
- Economics: Some are growing and breaking out of the poverty trap, others are being left behind.
- Regime type: Some are democracies, others nondemocracies.
- Various cultures, state capacities, ethnic, national, or religious institutions, etc.
Many (but not all) share legacies of imperialism.

Imperialism and Colonialism

A Common Legacy

Empires: a single political authority that has under its sovereignty a large number of external regions or territories and different peoples
Imperialism: a system in which a state extends its powers to directly control territory, resources, and people beyond its borders
- Dominated by European powers (1500s to 1900s)
- Driven by economic, strategic, and cultural/religious motives
Imperialism often led to colonialism
- Colonialism: an imperialist system of physically occupying a foreign territory using military force, businesses, or settlers.

In Focus: Imperialism…

Is a system in which a state extends its power beyond its borders to control other territories, resources, and peoples.
Was propagated by European powers from the sixteenth to the twenty-first centuries.
Is driven by economic, strategic, and religious motives.
Often led to colonialism, the physical occupation of foreign territories.

The History of Modern Imperialism

Emerged in response to technological advances
European powers extend control over
- Latin America (Spain and Portugal)
- Middle East (Ottomans, later France and United Kingdom)
- Africa (France, Portugal, Belgium, and United Kingdom)
- Asia (United Kingdom and Portugal)
Major wars end the age of imperialism

Institutions of Imperialism

Exploring the State

New (and often artificial) borders
Exporting bureaucratic structures
- National language (often the imperial power)
- Police and military
- Taxation
- Legal systems
- Public goods: roads, schools, and hospitals
Consequences have been mixed

Exposing the State: Consequences

New infrastructure
- But built mainly for resource extraction
- Inequality between cities and countryside
Increased education
- For some of the population (inequality)
- Education → exposure to nationalism → resentment
“Institutional limbo”
- Incomplete imposition
- Trapped between traditional Western institutions

Social Identities

Ethnic and national identities
- Created new categories
- Colonial power structures favored certain groups
- Example: Tutsi in Rwanda
- Would provide basis for later independence movements; set stage for post-independence conflicts
Gender roles
- Imperial gender roles imposed on colonies
- Mixed impact; depends on region and imperial power

Major Changes in Political and Social Institutions

The state, as a form of political organization, was imposed on much of the world outside of Europe.
Ethnic and national identities were created where none had existed before colonization.
Gender roles from the imperial country were often imposed on colonies.

Dependent Development

Extractive colonies: Built to extract resources from colonies and send them back to the metropole (colonizing power)
- Most colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East
Settler colonies: A lot of Europeans settled
- US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
- Better set up for success in the long run
Importing cash-based economies
Little free trade, tended toward mercantilism
- Colonies produced primary commodities only
- Finished goods sold by imperial center
- Little development of local and regional industry
- Limits on trade with rival empires
- Business monopolies controlled economies
- United East India Company (Dutch); British East India Company
Urbanization and infrastructure expansion

Major Changes in Economic Institutions

Traditional agricultural economies were transformed to suit the needs of the imperialist power.
Economic organization under imperialism impeded domestic development in the colonies.
Free trade was often suppressed, as colonies were forced to supply goods only to the imperial country, creating extractive economies in the colonies.

The Challenges of Post-Imperialism

Post-imperial Challenges

The broad goals
- Build state capacity and autonomy.
- Create nations and citizens.
- Generate economic growth.
Some countries have done better than others at meeting these goals.

Capacity and Autonomy: A Review

Capacity: the ability of the state to carry out basic tasks, including
- Defending the country
- Making and enforcing rules
- Managing the economy
- Collecting taxes
- Building infrastructure; providing education and healthcare
Autonomy: the ability of the state to wield its power independently of the public

Why a Lack of Capacity?

Absence of a professional bureaucracy
- Imperial power vacuum
Politicization of bureaucracy
- Clientelism, rent-seeking, and corruption

Why a Lack of Autonomy?

Patrimonialism
- State captured and exploited
- Some operate under kleptocracy: “rule by theft”
- 1990s: Nigerian officials steal over $1 billion
- 2016: U.S. government seizes $1 billion in assets stolen by people chose to Malaysian prime minister.
International pressures
- More powerful state and international actors shape state’s political decisions.

Wrapping It Up: Why Weak State Autonomy and Capacity

Absence of professional bureaucracy (following departure of foreign imperial bureaucrats).
Clientelism, rent-seeking, and corruption in the handling of state jobs and revenue.
Sovereignty often compromised by external actors (other states, international organizations).

The Consequences: Compromised Freedom and Equality

More criminality and corruption
Increased political and economic inequalities
Greater civil and communal conflict
Inability to respond to disasters and crises
Loss of government legitimacy
- May lead to greater political instability

The Challenges of Creating Nations and Citizens

Challenge 1: Build a single national identity in high diverse societies.
Challenge 2: Address gender inequalities.

Nation-State Failures: The Conflict Risk

Causes of ethnic/religious conflicts:
- Inequality in wealth
- Political dominance of one group over others
- Clientelism and patrimonialism → increases ethnic disparities
Examples of patrimonialism in practice
- Sunni rule in Shia-majority Iraq under Saddam Hussein
- Alawite monopolization of power in Syria

The Challenges of Building a Unified Nation-State

Ethnic and religious divisions among different groups in heterogeneous societies (often exacerbated by economic inequality).
Arbitrary political boundaries imposed by imperial powers.

The Struggle of Women: Property Rights

The problems:
- Laws favor male ownership and deny women access to land or capital.
- Economic/cultural barriers to change: men fear less of their authority.
Example of reform failure: Nicaragua
- Land law reforms beginning in 1980s sought to implement women’s joint ownership.
- Local inheritance customs make implementation difficult.
- Consequences: husbands engage in “asset violence” and property blackmail.

The Struggle of Women: Gendercide

The causes: poverty + culture/legal traditions that favor males
- Economics and laws favor male holding of resources.
- Dowry tradition: girls are viewed as an economic burden.
The consequences for women:
- Discrimination: less investment (such as health and education) in daughters
- Gendercide: sex-selective abortions; neglect of girl babies; bride burnings; witch killings
- Examples: 40 million missing girls in India; 60 million in China

The Challenge of Generating Economic Growth

Imperialism left a legacy of unsustainable economies
- Focus on primary commodity production
- Had to import finished goods
Many developing countries started from system of trade imbalances and debt
Neocolonialism: Indirect form of imperialism in which powerful countries overly influence the economies of less-developed nations

Breaking the Cycle: Three Paths to Economic Growth

Two distinct mercantilist economic policies were applied throughout the developing world:
- Import substitution
- Export-oriented industrialization
These are also known as structural-adjustment programs.

Import Substitution: The Basic Idea

Import substitution: a mercantilist strategy for economic growth in which a country restricts imports in order to spur demands for locally produced goods
Where implemented: Latin America, Africa, parts of Asia
Policy tools: trade protectionism and intervention
- Tariffs and nontariff trade barriers
- Widespread subsidies
- Government-owned and parastatal companies

Import Substitution: The Final Evaluation

Complete policy feature
Problems it created
- Business uncompetitive, could not function without state protection
- Corruption
- Poverty remained unchanged or increased
- Middle-income trap: a situation where countries experience economic growth but are unable to develop at a speed necessary to catch up with developed countries

Export-Oriented Industrialization: The Basic Idea

Export-oriented industrialization: a mercantilist strategy for economic growth in which a country seeks out technologies and develops industries focused specifically on the export market
Where implemented: Asia
Policy tools: strategic investment to build an export-based market
- Capitalize on the product life cycle.
- Strategic government subsidies
- Tariffs and other trade barriers

Export-Oriented Industrialization: The Final Evaluation

More successful than import substitution
Some challenges
- May be prone to corruption
- As economy develops, this strategy becomes more expensive.
- Rising labor costs undermine product life cycle advantage.
- Economic dependencies are increased.
- Success of domestic companies rely on international demand.
- Lack of domestic markets undermines market diversity.

Structural Adjustment Programs: The Basic Idea

Structural-adjustment program: a policy of economic liberalization adopted in exchange for financial support from liberal organizations; typically includes privatizing state-run firms, ending subsidies, reducing tariff barriers, shrinking the size of the state, and welcoming foreign investment
- Also called neoliberalism and Washington consensus
Where implemented: countries receiving loans from World Bank or IMF
Major goal: Minimize government intervention to allow a free market to emerge.

Structural Adjustment Programs: The Policy Tools

Privatize state-run firms, sell off state ownership in parastatals.
End subsidies.
Reduce tariff and other trade barriers.
Shrink the size of the state (including welfare spending).
Remove restrictions and pass policies to encourage foreign investment.

Structural Adjustment Programs: The Final Evaluation

Its success depends on the country.
- A good option in overly bureaucratic states
- May undermine growth in countries struggling with human capital crises, geography challenges, or infrastructure weaknesses
Other issues
- Criticized as neocolonialism
- Political instability: Frustration over policy triggered anti-IMF riots in Egypt (1977) and Greece (2010-2012).

Wrapping It Up: The Three Paths to Growth

Import Substitution
- Based on mercantilism
- State plays a strong role in the economy.
- Tariffs or nontariff barriers are used to restrict imports.
- State actively promotes domestic production, sometimes creating state-owned businesses in developing industries.
- Criticized for creating “hothouse economies,” with large industries reliant on the state for support and unable to compete in the international market.
Export-Oriented Industrialization
- Based on mercantilism
- State plays a strong role in the economy.
- Tariff barriers are used to protect domestic industries.
- Economic production is focused on industries that have a niche in the international market.
- Seeks to integrate directly into the global economy.
- Has generally led to a higher level of economic development than import substitution.
Structural Adjustment
- Based on liberalism
- State involvement is reduced as the economy is opened up.
- Foreign involvement is encouraged.
- Often follows import substitution.
- Criticized as a tool of neocolonialism and for its failure in many cases to bring substantial economic development.

Puzzles and Prospects for Democracy and Development

Dynamic Growth and Major Challenges

Major improvements
- Life expectancy improving
- Infant mortality dropping
- Fast GDP growth
Challenges preventing growth
- Ethnic conflict
- Natural resources and the resource curse
- Poor governance

Making a More Effective State

Major goal: build good governance and improve the rule of law
Possible strategies
- Reform judicial institutions, police, and civil service.
- Strengthen constitutional courts.
Critics: Institutional reform should NOT be the starting point.
- Argue that rule of law norms need to emerge first, and only then will real institutional change occur.

Developing Political Engagement

Major goal: Nurture civil society and citizen engagement.
Possible strategies
- Emphasize local issues.
- Expand mass media.
Critics: Political engagement does not guarantee good politics.
- May instead fuel clientelism.

Promoting Economic Prosperity

The challenge of the informal economy
- Informal economy: a segment of the economy that is not regulated or taxed by the state
The benefits and drawbacks of a large informal economy
- Very flexible
- Tends to employ women
- Lack of revenues, which weakens state capacity and public goods
- More difficult for firms to grow

In Sum: The Challenges of Development

Developing countries are a very diverse group that includes both middle- and lower-income countries.
While there are many differences between these countries, many share a common legacy of imperial rule. Imperialism has shaped these countries’ political, social, and economic institutions.
Developing countries struggle with building capacity and autonomy; these political challenges undermine economic and social stability.
Regarding social cohesion, some developing countries struggle with ethnic or religious divides. Gender inequality is also a major problem, with potential serious repercussions if left unaddressed.
Following the end of imperialism, states sought to grow their economies by pursuing one or more of the following policies: import substitution, export-oriented industrialization, or structral adjustment programs (neoliberalism/Washington Consensus).
Major goals for developing states today are creating more effective governance, developing political engagement, and promoting economic growth. There is no “one size fits all” policy to achieving any of these goals.

Key Terms

Colonialism - an imperialist system of physically occupying a foreign territory using military force, businesses, or settlers
Developing countries - lower- and middle-income countries
Empire - a single political authority that has under its sovereignty a large number of external regions or territories and different peoples
Export-oriented industrialization - a mercantilist strategy for economic growth in which a country seeks out technologies and develops industries focused specifically on the export market
Imperialism - a system in which a state extends its powers to directly control territory, resources, and people beyond its borders
Import substitution - a mercantilist strategy for economic growth in which a country restricts imports in order to spur demands for locally produced goods
Informal economy - a segment of the economy that is not regulated or taxed by the state
Lower-income countries - countries that lack significant economic development, political institutionalization, or both; also known as less-developed countries (LDCs)
Microedit - a system in which small loans are channeled to the poor through borrowing groups whose members jointly take responsibility for repayment
1. Middle-income countries - historically less-developed countries that have experienced significant economic growth and democratization; also known as newly industrializing countries (NICs)
2. Middle-income trap - a situation where countries experience economic growth but are unable to develop at a speed necessary to catch up with developed countries
3. Neocolonialism - an indirect form of imperialism in which powerful countries overly influence the economies of less-developed countries
4. Neoliberalism/structural adjustment programs/Washington Consensus - a policy of economic liberalization adopted in exchange for financial support from liberal organizations; typically includes privatizing state-run firms, ending subsidies, reducing tariff barriers, shrinking the size of the state, and welcoming foreign investment