MJ

Notes on Theory and Research (Comprehensive)

Theory and Research

  • Theory: an explanation of observed regularities or patterns

  • Form of the theory

  • Relationship between data and theory

  • Theory: composed of interrelated verifiable statements/propositions

  • 3 components of a theory

    • Definitions: specify what the key terms in the theory mean
    • Eg: Attachments are stable bonds between people who are fond of each other
    • Descriptions: outline the characteristics of the phenomena of interest
    • Eg: Attachments to parents and other family members tend to decline in adolescence because often after 25 new attachments develop as a person marries, becomes a parent or gets a job
    • Relational statements: connects two or more variables so that knowing the value of one variable conveys information about the other
    • Eg: As the proportion of people aged 15-25 decreases, the crime rate also decreases

  • Variables: An attribute or characteristic that may vary over time or from case to case

    • See also dependent variable and independent variable; compare with constant

  • Relational statements two forms:

    • Deterministic: two variables always go together in a particular way
    • Eg: As the number of people aged 15-25 decreases by 1%, the crime rate also shrinks by 1%
    • If research uncovers an instance in which the variables are not related in this way, the relational statement must be modified
    • Probabilistic: two variables go together with some degree of regularity, but the relationship is not inevitable
    • Eg: regions of the country where the number of people aged 15-25 is decreasing are more likely to experience a decline in the crime rate than regions in which number of people in that age category is increasing
    • Finding a case that does not fit the pattern does not mean that the theory must be modified

  • Middle Range Theories and Grand Theories

    • Middle range theories are more limited and can be tested directly through empirical evidence.
    • Durkheim's theory of suicide suggests suicide is a function of social integration level.
    • Merton's anomie theory suggests crime is more common when society instills a desire for wealth but provides insufficient means.
    • These theories aim to understand and explain a limited aspect of social life.
    • Grand Theories: General and abstract theories like structural-functionalism, symbolic interactionism, critical theory, post-structuralism, and feminism.
    • Offers ways of viewing the world and inspiration for various research programs.
    • Standpoint theory, developed by Dorothy Smith, suggests our worldview is influenced by status and power hierarchies.
    • Encourages examination of views and perceptions of marginalized groups.
    • Giddens’s structuration theory can be applied to specific issues, yielding important insights.

  • Grand Theory and Social Research: Exploring Digital Technology Use Among Older Adults

    • Grand theory, a concept by Gibbs, aims to bridge the gap between social structure and agency.
    • Neves, Waycott, & Malta's 2018 study examined the use of digital technologies among older adults in Canada and Australia.
    • The research used a mixed-methods design, including interviews, focus groups, attitude scales, and field observations.
    • Participants were frail institutionalized older adults and those living with community assistance.
    • The study found that the age-based digital divide did not adequately describe the social complexity surrounding technology use among this age group.
    • Most participants used the app, with varying degrees of sophistication and creativity.
    • Social structures impacted the adoption of digital technology, with relatives' willingness to assist in learning being a key factor.
    • Agency was described as evolving within the context of these social structures, influenced by personal perceptions and desires.

Semi-Structured Interviews and Non-Theoretical Research

  • Semi-structured interviews: a type of interview in which the interviewer has a series of questions in the general form of an interview guide and is able to vary the sequence of questions.
    • Questions are typically more general than those specified by a structured interview schedule, and the interviewer usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to replies that appear significant.
  • Not all social science studies make theories
  • Some qualitative writers focus on description of experiences rather than coming up with comprehensive theories
  • Non-Theoretical Research in Social Science
    • Some social scientists reject research without direct theoretical connection.
    • McKeganey and Barnard's (1996) study on British sex workers and their clients provides valuable insights.
    • Their findings are related to investigations in the sex industry in other countries.
    • The study illustrates Goffman’s (1963) notion of "stigma" and how stigmatized individuals manage identity.
    • The study also sheds light on Hochschild's (1983) concept of "emotional labour," referring to flight attendants' feign friendliness to handle difficult passengers.
    • Other non-theoretical studies provide data for evaluating or devising theories.

Deductive Approach

  • Developed to explain a particular phenomenon.
  • Deduces specific hypotheses from the theory.
  • Tested with empirical data.
  • Hypotheses are either confirmed or rejected.
  • In simultaneous research, some hypotheses were supported.
  • If data doesn't support hypotheses, theory may need revision or rejection.
  • 1. Theory
  • 2. Observations/findings
  • Deductive research steps:
    • Theory
    • Hypotheses
    • Data collection
    • Findings
    • Hypotheses confirmed or rejected
    • Substantiation, revision, or rejection of theory

Religion and Secularization in Western Countries

  • Religion has been a foundation for beliefs about our place in the cosmic order, human nature, and the existence of the universe.
  • In Western countries, secularization has led to a decrease in religious practices, particularly in the mid-20th century.
  • Despite this, religion remains prevalent in Canada, with 26% of Canadians attending religious services monthly or more frequently.
  • However, the proportion of Canadians who are firmly religious is significantly lower than it was several decades ago.
  • Hay (2014) used a deductive approach to explore the reasons for this social change.
  • He reviewed seven theories of secularization and deduced specific hypotheses from each.
  • Deprivation–compensation theory suggested that existential security, such as healthcare, education, long life expectancy, and absence of military conflict, shields people from traumas that draw them towards religion.
  • Hay's analysis of contemporary survey data showed strong support for three other theories: acceptance of personal autonomy in spiritual and moral matters, religious pluralism in wealthy countries, and acceptance of human evolution and the belief that observable phenomena are purely material or physical.

Inductive Approach and Grounded Theory

  • Inductive approach: theories and interpretations are the outcome of research.
    • Researcher doesn’t come up with a theory to be tested; they gather or examine data relevant to the phenomenon being investigated.
    • 1. Observation/findings
    • 2. Theory
  • Inductive Method in Research
    • Data gathering is the first step in inductive method.
    • Theoretical reflection is followed by data collection to establish the validity of the theory.
    • The process is described as iterative, moving between data and theory.
  • Grounded theory: An approach to the analysis of qualitative data in which the goal is to use the data to generate theory; the data collection and analysis proceed in an iterative (recursive) fashion.
  • Deriving theories from qualitative data
    • It is possible to conduct a study purely on deductive or inductive
    • Inductive and deductive research methods are not always possible.
    • Deduction involves an element of induction, while inductive process involves a modicum of deduction.
    • Researchers often combine both in the same research.
  • Generalizations: To generalize a research finding is to apply it to people or groups who were not in the study.
    • Eg: Statistics Canada finding that the number of people in same-sex marriages in this country increased from 42,030 in 2011 to 48,740 in 2016 (Statistics Canada, 2017), which a researcher could use in the context of a discussion of the changing forms of the family in Canada.
  • Epistemological considerations
    • Notions of what can be known and how knowledge can be acquired
    • What should be regarded as acceptable knowledge

Epistemology and Positivism

  • Whether social sciences should follow the same principles and procedures as natural sciences
  • Positivism
    • Epistemological position that affirms importance of following natural sciences
    • Only phenomena confirmed by the senses (hearing, sight etc.)
    • Empirical testing before it is considered knowledge
    • Generate hypotheses that can be tested and allow explanations of observed laws and principles to be assessed (deduction)
    • Knowledge can also be arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide the basis for generalizations or laws (induction).
    • Intersubjectivity: A condition in which two or more observers of the same phenomenon are in agreement as to what they have observed.
    • Empiricists assume that intersubjectivity is possible insofar as knowledge is based on data acquired through the senses.
  • Distinguishing Scientific and Normative Statements
    • Scientific statements explain social phenomena's operations.
    • Normative statements determine morally acceptable social conditions.
    • Scientific statements belong to science, normative statements belong to philosophy or religion.
    • Truth of moral claims cannot be confirmed by senses.
  • Positivism (continued)
    • Positivism distinguishes between theory and research, incorporating elements of deduction and induction.
    • Research tests theories and gathers necessary information for scientific laws.
    • Positivism allows for observation collection without reference to pre-existing theories and the development of new theories based on those observations.
    • Theories and propositions not directly testable through empirical observation are often not considered scientific.
  • Dissatisfaction with Positivism
    • Positivism has been criticized for ignoring fundamental differences between humans and inanimate entities studied by natural scientists.
    • The positivist idea that science should be value-free has been criticized.
    • Critics argue that "neutral" social scientists often take moral positions on social issues.

Interpretivism, Symbolic Interactionism, and Critical Approaches

  • Critical social science asserts the researcher's duty to bring about social change for a better world.
  • Interpretivism: An epistemological position that requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meanings that people attach to their actions and behaviours.
  • Interpretivism in Social Science
    • Emerged from the critique of positivism, offering an alternative to the typical social science approach.
    • Posits that social scientists should understand the subjective meanings of people's actions, arguing that people act based on their own interpretations of their actions and others.
    • Understanding social reality requires access to the "common-sense thinking" of the people they study.
    • To gain insights, interpretivists often immerse themselves in the social environments of the people they study or conduct lengthy interviews.
    • Interpretive social scientists argue that the subject matter of social sciences is fundamentally different from natural sciences, necessitating a different logic and research procedure.
    • Max Weber's notion of Verstehen, or "empathetic understanding," exemplifies this division, stating that sociology aims to interpret social action to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.
  • Symbolic interactionism: A theoretical perspective in which social interaction is understood to be based on the meanings that actors attach to their actions and the contexts in which they occur.
    • Founders include George Herbert Mead; self-concept emerges from appreciating others' perceptions.
    • Interaction involves continuous interpretation of symbolic meanings and actions based on these interpretations.
    • Research in symbolic interaction requires understanding the process of interpretation through which actors construct actions.
    • Interpretative stance can lead to surprising findings, especially if the researcher's or reader's experience doesn't include the social context being studied.
  • Critical Approaches to Social Science
    • Emerged as a reaction to positivism, using diverse research methods and a deductive or inductive approach.
    • Critics argue that research should not be seen as ends in themselves, but as means to eradicate suffering and oppression.
    • Marxists argue that those in power exploit the weak, transforming the masses from a class in itself to a class for itself.
    • Critical social scientists believe in action-oriented research, involving praxis, which involves putting theoretical and academic positions into practice.
    • Critical perspectives are adopted by scholars in feminist, post-colonial, anti-poverty, anti-racism, and queer studies.
    • Examples of critical social science include participatory action research, institutional ethnography, and critical discourse analysis.
  • Participatory Action Research (PAR)
    • Closely associated with social and political activism
    • Sometimes referred to as “action research,” “emancipatory research,” or “participatory research”
  • Origins and Evolution of PAR
    • Originated in the post-Second World War era by Lewin and others who brought social science to specific social problems.
    • In the early 1970s, PAR took on an activist orientation, with local people affected by the issue acting as partners with professional social scientists and government officials.
    • The methodology of PAR now includes working for social justice, where participants reflect on a social problem, use the results as the basis for social action, and discuss the consequences of the action.
  • PAR's Potential for Transformation
    • The PAR process can transform participants personally, intellectually, and spiritually.
    • Examples include Alberta dairy farmers bringing donated cattle to an impoverished, rural Mexican community and low-income women in British Columbia partnering with social scientists and local recreation directors to help women with limited means gain access to physical activity services.
  • PAR's Relevance for Indigenous People in Canada
    • PAR has special relevance for Indigenous people in Canada, as it combines PAR with Indigenous methodologies through "two-eyed seeing."
    • In her study of Indigenous access to plural systems of health care, Peltier sought community sanction for the research, reached out to health directors in three Indigenous communities, and ensured that her project adhered to both national and local research ethics protocols.
    • A local advisory committee was set up to ensure accountability to the community, directed the hiring of an Indigenous research assistant, and helped develop the research instruments.
    • The final results of the study were shared with participants and members of other Indigenous communities, and were disseminated at academic conferences and through academic publications.

Ontology and Social Reality

  • Ontology: Branch of philosophy concerned with whether the social world is akin to the physical world
  • Two ontological debates
    • Do social phenomena have an objective reality, independent of our perceptions? Or is what passes for reality a set of mental constructions?
    • Objectivist: An ontological position according to which social phenomena have an existence independent of social actors or their perceptions; compare with constructionism.
    • There is a thing called social reality and it’s the jobs of social scientists to discover what reality is
    • Constructionist: An ontological position according to which social phenomena and their meanings are continually being created by social actors; also known as constructivism.
  • There is no objective social reality against which our conceptions and views of the world may be tested
  • "Soft Constructionism" Position
    • Believes in objective social reality.
    • Asserts ideas are constructed to justify domination.
  • Debate on Social Reality and Its Creation: Objectivism and Constructionism
    • Objectivists view social reality as external, beyond individuals' control.
    • Organizations, for instance, are seen as a constraining force that enforces rules and procedures.
    • An alternative ontological perspective, referred to as "negotiated order," challenges this view.
    • Organizations are seen as negotiated, with rules being less extensive and less rigorously imposed than objectivist accounts suggest.
    • The social order of a hospital is an outcome of agreed-upon patterns of action, which are products of negotiations among different parties involved.
    • The formal properties of organizations make it difficult to recognize the degree to which order in organizations has to be established in everyday interaction.
  • The Role of Individuals in Social Construction
    • Strauss and colleagues stressed the active role of individuals in the social construction of reality.
    • They did not claim that nurses can negotiate their roles to the point where they are allowed to operate on patients.
    • Not all writers adopting a constructionist position are prepared to acknowledge the existence or importance of an objective reality.
  • Conceptual Construction in Social Reality
    • Concepts used to understand the natural and social world are social products whose meaning is constructed in and through social interaction.
    • The construction of one's masculinity may have to be "recuperated" from time to time, as seen in discourse analysis.
    • This sense of constructionism often sparks an interest in how social phenomena are represented.
  • Discourse Analysis
    • An approach to the analysis of talk and other forms of communication that emphasizes the way language can create versions of reality.
  • Social Ontology and Social Research
    • Ontological assumptions and commitments influence research formulation and execution.
    • Researchers may focus on formal properties of organizations or the active involvement of people in reality construction.
    • Different research designs are required for different perspectives.

General Orientations: Quantitative vs Qualitative Research

  • Quantitative
    • Numbers and statistics in the collection and analysis of data
    • Role of theory in search: Mainly deductive; testing of theory
    • Epistemological orientation: Natural Science model; positivism
    • Ontological orientation: Objectivism
    • Usually entails a deductive relationship between theory and research, with theory testing as a prime objective
    • Incorporates practices and norms of the natural science model; generally embodies a view of society as an external, objective reality
  • Qualitative
    • Word and non-numerical symbols
    • Role of theory in search: Mainly inductive; generation of theory
    • Epistemological orientation: Interpretivism
    • Ontological orientation: Constructionism
    • Takes a predominantly inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, with generation of theories and interpretations as the main goal
    • Rejects the use of the natural science and positivist models in social research and replaces them with methodologies that seek to determine how individuals interpret their social world; embodies a view of social reality as a constantly shifting and emergent property of individuals’ creations.
    • Qualitative research is often used to test theories rather than generate them.
    • Examples: Ellis et al. (2020) study on Black Muslim immigrants and police used qualitative data to support minority group threat theory; Hier's (2002) investigation of Toronto rave scenes showed regulation of raves as a contest between city fears and rave supporters; Wilson's (2002) study on ravers' social situation included objectivist overtones.
  • Quantitative studies also incorporate elements of qualitative orientation, such as studies of social attitudes.
  • Both quantitative and qualitative research represent different research orientations, with the distinction being not hard and fast. Both orientations are valuable in the quest for knowledge and understanding, with profound social and political importance.

Influences on the Conduct of Social Research

  • Values and Personal Beliefs in Social Research
    • Durkheim's concept of social facts as objects requiring all preconceptions to be eradicated suggests that values should be suppressed in research.
    • Social researchers are influenced by value presuppositions that have implications for the conduct of social research.
    • Values can play a role at any or all points in the process of social research, including choice of research area, question formulation, method formulation, research design and data collection techniques, data collection, analysis of data, interpretation of data, and conclusions.
  • Positive and Negative Consequences of Values
    • Values can help researchers act ethically and motivate them to be a positive influence.
    • They can also lead to ideological bias or observational blind spots if they lead to ignoring theoretical perspectives or evidence that does not match expectations.
  • Recognizing Values and Bias in Research
    • Researchers are encouraged to acknowledge and make explicit values in the research process.
    • They are increasingly prepared to forewarn readers of their biases and assumptions and explain how these may have influenced their findings.
    • Some researchers argue for consciously value-laden research, such as exposing conditions of women’s disadvantage in a male-dominated society.
  • Possible Positions on Values and Value-Free Research
    • Few writers today believe it is possible to be truly objective.
    • There is a greater awareness of the limits of objectivity, but researchers still struggle to demonize those whose values are different from their own.
  • Reflexivity: Awareness of the implications that methods, values, biases, decisions, and the presence in the situation have for knowledge produced.
  • Politics in Social Research
    • Social researchers often take sides in their research, influencing outcomes.
    • Examples include feminist researchers focusing on women’s disadvantages and improving their societal position, some social scientists favoring increased government intervention in economic affairs, and sociologists and political scientists in Quebec split between sovereigntists and federalists.
    • Research funding, often funded by organizations with vested interests, can open the door to political influence. These organizations may invest in studies that will benefit them or support their operations and world views.
    • Access to research participants can also be a political process, especially in organizations. Gatekeepers influence the investigation: type of questions asked, who can be a focus, time spent, interpretation of findings, and form of reports.
    • Public institutions, such as police departments, schools, hospitals, and most commercial firms, often negotiate access to their research participants, which can turn into a political process. Researchers may be used as pawns if subgroups attempt to enlist them in advancing a particular goal.
    • There may be pressure to restrict the publication of findings, as seen in a study of plea bargaining in the British criminal justice system. The English legal establishment sought to thwart dissemination and was persuaded to allow publication only when a panel of academics confirmed validity.
  • Gatekeepers: A non-researcher who controls researchers’ access to a research setting.
  • Validity: A research criterion concerned with the integrity of the conclusions generated by a particular study
    • There are several types of validity: see, in particular, measurement validity, internal validity, and external validity.

Research Question Determinants and Approaches

  • Research orientation, design, or method should align with the research question.
  • Quantitative strategy is suitable for measuring social phenomenon impact.
  • Qualitative strategy is suitable for understanding social group world views.
  • Quantitative strategy may be challenging for topics with limited research due to lack of prior literature.
  • Qualitative, exploratory approach is preferred for theory generation and unstructured research process.
  • The nature of the topic and the people being investigated also impacts research approach.
  • For illicit activities, researchers often use qualitative strategy due to difficulty in developing rapport with participants.
  • However, qualitative approach may not be suitable for testing hypotheses on secularization.

Formulating a Research Question

  • Research questions are likened to a destination for a hike, determining the direction and experience along the way.

  • A research question outlines the purpose of the study and can be more evocative and stimulating than a simple declarative statement.

  • Examples of research questions include:

    • Quantitative questions: Ask whether a particular variable or set of variables influences the phenomenon of interest.
    • Qualitative research questions: Less specific, open-ended, evolving, and non-directional.

  • Quantitative research may start with a general area of interest, such as male homosexuality, and narrow down to specific sub-questions.

  • Qualitative research may become more specific over time, usually after the researcher has started to gather data.

  • No single study can answer all the research questions, and only a small number can be selected.

  • Research questions may change as the study progresses due to new data sources, initial findings, or limitations in time and resources.

Importance of Research Questions

  • Set realistic boundaries for research.
  • Avoid unfocused and substandard research.
  • Guide literature search, research design, data collection, data analysis, and conclusion writing.
  • Ensures clear direction and avoids unnecessary tangents.

Notes on Form and Usage

  • All mathematical expressions, numbers, formulas, or variables are presented in LaTeX format within double-dollar signs where appropriate in this note. For example, a relational statement can be expressed as:
    • \Delta \text{CrimeRate} \approx -1\% \quad \text{when} \quad \Delta \text{AgeGroup15-25} = -1\%.
  • This note preserves examples from the transcript and expands them into structured study guidance for exam preparation.