1 Byzantium, The New Rome

The western Roman Empire crumbled in the 5th century due to invasions by Germanic tribes.
In the 4th century, the threat from these tribes became apparent.
Emperor Constantine rebuilt Byzantium on the Bosporus strait for two reasons:
- To counter the Germanic tribes' threat.
- To be close to his rich eastern provinces.
In 330, Constantine renamed the city Constantinople and established it as the capital of the empire.

Constantinople was designed as the new capital of the empire, termed the New Rome.
The empire's center of power shifted eastward, leading to the development of an independent eastern empire.

In 395, due to communication difficulties, the empire was officially divided into Eastern and Western halves.
Successors of Constantine in the East viewed themselves as Roman emperors.
In 527, Justinian, a Byzantine nobleman, became emperor and aimed to rule both eastern and western parts.
Sent General Belisarius to recover North Africa from the Vandals, swiftly succeeding.
In 535, Belisarius captured Rome from the Ostrogoths, but the city faced multiple attacks in the following years, changing hands six times.
After various campaigns, Justinian's forces took nearly all of Italy and parts of Spain, allowing him to claim the title of a new Caesar.

Byzantine emperors ruled with absolute power, overseeing both state and church.
They had authority to appoint or dismiss bishops at will.
Political power was brutal, with emperors often facing assassination.
Of the 88 Byzantine emperors, 29 died violently, and 13 abdicated to live in monasteries.

The Byzantine Empire developed its own identity distinct from the western empire due to governance and communication barriers.
Citizens identified with Roman traditions but primarily spoke Greek and followed the eastern Christian Church.

To manage his complex society, Justinian established a panel of ten legal experts (528-533) to create a uniform legal code.
The result, the Justinian Code, is comprised of four works:
1. The Code: Nearly 5,000 Roman laws deemed useful for the Byzantine Empire.
2. The Digest: Quoted and summarized opinions of legal thinkers, spanning 50 volumes.
3. The Institutes: A textbook for law students on using the laws.
4. The Novellae: Legislation passed after 534.
The Justinian Code regulated various aspects of Byzantine life, including marriage, slavery, property, inheritance, women’s rights, and crimes.
The code remained in effect for 900 years following Justinian's death in 565.

Justinian initiated the most ambitious public building program of his era, including:
- Rebuilding the city’s fortifications, with a 14-mile stone wall and three layers of defense.
- Church construction, with Hagia Sophia as the crowning achievement, rebuilt after destruction in 532 riots.
- Expansion of his palace into a vast complex, and building baths, aqueducts, law courts, schools, and hospitals.
The city's vibrancy reflected a unique cultural and architectural grandeur unmatched in the world.