Roots of the Enlightenment

Background/Influences

1) Scholasticism

Emphasis on use of logic (reason)

Schoolmen used it to “prove” and explain doctrines

Used for other purposes in Enlightenment

2) Renaissance

Humanism(faith in man’s potential, freedom)

but always within a Christian framework

interest in scholarship

interest in classical (Greek/Roman) ideas(virtues, wisdom)

part of core curriculum in 17 th ,18 th century university education

influx of scholarship (documents) from collapsed Byzantine Empire

new(or long forgotten) ideas begin to surface

3) Reformation

Successful challenge to monolithic Roman Church

Results in weakening of RCC power and influence

emphasis on learning

increase in educational opportunities

especially within Protestant countries

intellectual counter response of Jesuits

4) Religious Wars

Demonstrates the folly of intolerance

loss of prestige (and influence) for Church(including Protestantism)

increasingly state controlled

focused on maintaining order and good manners

breeds skepticism

5) Age of Exploration

exposure to other cultures around the world

relativity of cultural values and morals

societies without Christianity have morals

skepticism about moral absolutes- Montaigne(On Cannibals)

New technologies and instruments facilitate greater accuracy of

knowledge

6) Scientific Revolution

superiority of rational methodologies for obtaining new

knowledge and truth (Bacon, Newton)

victory of scientific method over traditional authority(Church) in new model

of universe

Challenges to traditional beliefs and availability of new information spark a desire for a

more certain approach to knowledge and truth

Ancient Greek philosophers had explored epistemology (study of knowledge)

Plato – rationalism

Aristotle – empiricism

Medieval Church had brought knowledge under the authority of the Church

“Medieval synthesis” of faith and reason(Aquinas)

Protestant Reformers placed knowledge under the direction of scriptures

17 th century thinkers present new (or at least expanded) models to explain how

reliable knowledge is (or should be) acquired

it is convenient(if not completely accurate) to classify the developments in this

area into 2 different general approaches

1) rationalism 2) empiricism

Rene Descartes Discourse on Method (1637)

Rationalist approach

Dissatisfied with traditional methods of acquiring knowledge

Claims his “method” of knowledge came to him as an epiphany

Most of what we “know” is empirical(experiential) knowledge

It depends on our senses

It can be wrong (only provides probable truths)

Radical doubt exercise

Exalts the superiority of mathematical knowledge(pure reason)

It is absolutely true

The mind naturally recognizes/grasps these type of truths (the Cogito)

a.k.a. Innate, A priori, Intuitive knowledge

God is true/real because my mind intuitively accepts the

reality of a perfect, infinite being. If it wasn’t true my mind

would reject it or not understand it

starting from these absolute, innate, self-evident truths, we deduce

other ideas following his new (Cartesian) method

it is basically the method/approach one uses to solve a complex math equation

1) accept as true only what is proven true(“clear and distinct”)

2) break it down into its component parts and deal with each part separately(deductively)

3) examine it in a orderly ,systematic way( from simple to complex

4) leave nothing out… be thorough

Although this approach is useful in certain fields(physical science) it is harder to

apply rationalism to more subjective areas where humans and values are

involved since it is itself relying on the individual subjective experience

Still Descartes does effectively challenge traditional authorities and views.

He also stirs up others to challenge rationalism…

John Locke Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

Empirical approach

Rejects the rationalist approach of Descartes

The mind is a “tabula rasa” (blank slate) at birth

No innate ideas

Our experiences form our knowledge (a posteriori truths)

We have 2 types of experience

1) sensation (outer experience)

from which our mind perceives “sensible qualities.”

“yellow, white, heat, cold, soft, hard, bitter, sweet"

2) reflection (inner experience)

we experience the minds own operations

“ doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing"

simple ideas(red,round,sweet) are combined(inductively) to produce more

complex ideas(cherry)

Empiricism fits with Newton’s “scientific” approach.

Logically analyze sensory(empirical) data to acquire knowledge.

Bring no innate ideas or beliefs into it.

However, concepts that can’t be known through the senses or

experimentally observed (i.e. God) are not necessarily rejected,

they just have to be left out of the realm of knowledge

Empiricism can lead to moral relativity

Right and wrong are based on experience

environmentally determined

many of the 17 th century practitioners not willing to go that far (i.e.Newton)

they are still good Anglicans

Rationalism and empiricism are often presented as 2 opposing approaches when in fact

rationalists acknowledge and affirm empirical ideas and empiricists recognized the

reasonableness of certain intuitive ideas (i.e. Pascal’s wager)

Both schools make distinctions between pure thought (rationalism) and physical

sensory data(empiricism)

17 th century thinkers sought to explain how these two realms were related, or

unified and how they worked

Descartes’ pituitary gland, Spinoza’s pantheism, Leibniz’s monads,

Hobbes’ motion (2 kinds: “vital”-voluntary and “animal” –involuntary)

Unsuccessful…or at least unconvincing

Both rationalism and empiricism led man in the same direction…

away from a God-centered universe toward a man-centered universe

This new confidence in the ability of the rational mind to discover and comprehend truth

leads to the publication of controversial works.

Pierre Bayle Historical and Critical Dictionary(1697)

Most popular beliefs(knowledge) have no “scientific” support

written history is unreliable;

influenced by prejudice and feelings

religions are superstitious

subjective emotions

people believe it because they are gullible

no original sin

“evil” = irrational (going against one’s conscience)

reason dictates ethics

critical accounts of biblical figures, saints, philosophical

systems

Richard Simon Critical History of the Old Testament (1685)

Historical and literary critique of the Bible

Attacks Mosaic authorship of Pentateuch

Beginning of “higher criticism”

Hobbes Leviathan and and Locke Two Treatises on Government

Application of rational principles to political science

Undermine traditional ideas of government (i.e. divine right

absolutism)

human law derives from natural law(Hobbes)

Mans rights are “natural rights” (Locke)

“contract theory” of government

government by the consent of the people…God a non- factor

Hobbes – since “war” is man’s natural state due to his appetitive,

competitive and selfish nature, he contractually transfers/forfeits

natural liberty to an all powerful gov’t (Leviathan)which provides

security, protection and justice

Locke- gov’t’s contracted purpose is to protect natural rights of “life,

liberty and property”…failing to do so breaks

contract…revolution

The Enlightenment

Intellectual framework for rational approach established in 17 th century (see

previous notes)

But little significant impact made because…

Conservative forces (Church, absolutist governments) able to suppress

challenges to tradition (i.e. Galileo’s recantation)

Ideas were revolutionary and difficult to comprehend

i.e. Newton writes in Latin and uses calculus

A very limited audience/market for these new ideas

Scientific societies, Academies

However, indication of some progress seen with…

Fontenelle Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)

Attempt to make the make the discoveries of the

Scientific Revolution (math and physics equations)

understandable to the average reader

Most of the contributions are English (i.e. Locke, Berkley, Newton ) and

therefore have little wider impact

More isolated

Great contentment with pace of change and intellectual climate

Toleration, Whig government is more progressive

No sense of urgency or crisis

By the 18 th century, the new approach begins to spread and be popularized by

writers and thinkers called “philosophes.”

The philosophes

Sought to apply rational approach to different areas of human endeavor and

interest (politics, technology, economics, education, religion, law)

hope to “convert” significant persons to the emerging rational-based world views

and thereby introduce enlightened reforms

The most active and influential of these writers were French

i.e. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot

although they were motivated by the examples in England

i.e. toleration, liberty, constitutional government, law of

evidence

Why France ?

a) importance of the French language

language of educated class

diplomacy

literary language

easier to express ideas

beautiful

b) Europe’s preeminent nation

cultural leader

copied throughout Europe

French tutors in high demand

Wealthy

Europe’s largest population

Popularity of Salons

c) sense of urgency and desire for active reform…

there are ”causes” to be stirred up about

1) religious climate (moderate, mild persecution)

the dogmatic intolerance of Spain or Austria silences all

religious dissent, whereas the (relative)toleration allowed

in Netherlands and England breeds complacency

In France, just enough persecution(i.e censorship,

imprisonment) from the established state church to ignite

indignation

2) social inequities seem more pronounced and egregious in the

“Ancien Regime”

Who was the audience for the philosophes ? Who was interested in these ideas ?

Aristocracy (upper and lower)

Bourgeoisie

Certain rulers (eastern and traditionally despotic nations) – refer to next lecture

But…

Not aimed or too concerned with the common people

Church more influential

Wealthy don’t want them questioning the status quo

In general, ideas were popular if they were compatible with a person’s goals or

didn’t really affect a person’s position. There was enough variety in ideas and

approaches that you could find something to agree with or support

How did Enlightenment ideas spread ?

Books, journals/magazines, salons, coffee houses

In France the writers(philosophes) are not content to simply theorize and

analyze, they want to bring change to society

But, they must deal with censorship and persecution

i.e.Voltaire beaten and jailed on numerous occasions for what he wrote

techniques to avoid censorship

Pseudonyms, manuscripts, Salons, publish in foreign country,

humor/satire, double meaning, innuendo, embed in novels and

plays(antagonist’s part), dictionaries, footnotes, and… the Encyclopedia

Popularity aided by “reading revolution”

book publications and sales quadruples in 18 th century

shift away from devotional literature

reading becomes “private, silent and rapid.’

Rapid consumption of ideas

Women play leading role(hostesses, agenda setters) in Salons.

Tend to bring greater civility to discussions

Although there was no unified program for reform or even agreement on basic concepts

(i.e. monarchy vs democracy) there are certain core concepts that can be associated

with the Enlightenment.

core concepts and characteristics of the Enlightenment:

1) “faith” in reason

rational universe(Newton’s mechanistic universe)

human reason is the only basis by which all things should and can be

understood (secular humanism)

experience above authority

reason is autonomous

2) scientific method (reason) can be applied to all areas of human experience

i.e. Herbert’s inductive approach to religion finds 5 common elements all

religions share…basic tenants of deism

Beccaria’s rational reassessment of criminal punishmen(torture for

confession) would lead to a new enlightened system that would produce

greater justice

Quesnays’s scientific assessment of economics leads to Physiocracy

rejection of mercantilism’s focus on specie accumulation in favor of

surplus agricultural commodities traded in a “free market”

inspires Adam Smith’s treatise on capitalism (Wealth of Nations)

3) Progress

optimism

improved political, economic and social systems

seemingly verified by apparent economic and social improvements

of 18 th century(Agricultural, Commercial and Industrial Revolutions)

English model

need to combat the irrational “evils” of intolerance, ignorance, violence,

cruelty, slavery and economic stagnation

idea of the perfectibility of man(Condorcet, Lessing)

4) attack on Christianity

rejected as a basis for society and morals(Peter Gay)

Criticized for its inconsistencies and hypocrisies

skepticism

Greatly reduced in prestige by 18 th century

To be replaced with Deism(natural religion - clockmaker god

concept) or atheism(d’Holbach) or civil religion (Rousseau)

Gibbon’s analysis of the causes of… The Decline and Fall of

Roman Empire

Controversial assessment of the reasons for Christianity’s

growth(rejection of any supernatural factors)and its role in

the demise of classical culture

Exception: Pascal

other related themes in the philosophes writings include: toleration, liberty, equality,

nature, educational reform, universalism over nationalism

Counter Enlightenment

Movements within both the Protestant and Catholic Church which sought to

revitalize Christian spirituality, life and worship

Lutheran Church – Pietism

Catholic Church – Jansenism

Pascal attempts to show reasonableness of Christianity

Anglican Church – Methodism

Evangelical Revival in Great Britain spreads to the American

colonies(Great Awakening)

[The Enlightenment’s strongly anti-Christian character makes it difficult for

contemporary Christians, who continue to center their belief in faith and scripture, to find

much good. Indeed, the Enlightenment plays a major role in accelerating the

secularization of society. Many of the secular ideologies of the 19 th and 20 th centuries

(Darwin, Freud, Marx) were nurtured in the strongly anti-Christian intellectual

environment carved out by the Enlightenment.]

Leading philosophes of the Enlightenment

1) Montesquieu

Persian Letters

Criticize French society and government

Governed by women (alluding to king’s mistress)

Religion is for the ill and weak

Spirit of the Laws

Comparative study of governments (empirical approach)

Classifications

Monarchy, republics, despotism

concludes:

No one best government for all

Government is affected by nations climate, size, religion,

history, culture

i.e. colder climate makes heart beat more strongly

making its citizens more courageous and confident.

Each nation has its own spirit

Yet, England has the most progressive government

Separation of Powers(misread)

checks and balances

believed France should retain monarchy, but one that is

balanced by “intermediary powers” –specifically the nobility

2) Voltaire

witty, irreverent and edgy, well connected, rich, Anglophile

prolific(70 volumes), diverse(wrote in various genres-incredible literary

skills)…but not original

exposes and attacks injustices and inequities of his society

deist

hates dogma and religious intolerance

stirred by Calas case

Huguenot father convicted/executed for his Catholic son’s

hanging death. Voltaire able to get gov’t commission to overturn

verdict(suicide) and pay family indemnity (1765)

Christ’s life and golden rule are fine, but not organized Church and

priesthood

advocated benevolent despotism(enlightened monarchy)

low view of the common man(”the people”)

hopeful regarding new batch of young eastern monarchs

3) Diderot

co-editor of Encyclopedia(28 volumes)

most significant product of Enlightenment

all the philosophes contributed articles

compendium of historical, scientific and technological

knowledge

goals:

expand whole of human knowledge

change the general way of thinking (based on reason)

critical and analytical approaches

undermine traditional authorities and dogmas

make useful knowledge available

i.e blueprints for machines

improve man and society

4) Rousseau

personally moody, quarrelsome, self-absorbed, anti-establishment

Although considered a philosophe, his ideas evolved to where he actually

contradicts the views of his contemporary thinkers

Emotions over reason

Feelings over senses

Primitive/natural man(the noble savage) over civilized, rational man

Social Contract

Man is naturally good(“born free”) but is corrupted by society(“is

everywhere in chains”)

Man’s natural traits (honesty, kindness, love) are

destroyed by “rational” civilization and replaced by

(greed, jealousy, control)

Government is a necessary evil because man must live in community and

with limited resources…he wants his stuff protected.

Private property is the source of social alienation and conflict

How can man protect his individual freedom as well as his property ?

Willingly enters into a contract whereby all individuals merge their

rights and freedoms into the “General Will” of the whole community.

Governments purpose is to promote this General Will

The common interest(what is best for all) is necessarily what is best

for the individual

Not necessarily what the majority wants

Government might have to force the individual to be free

Emphasis on autonomous freedom and nature

Influence later Romantic movement and environmentalism

His thinking is Utopian(not practically worked out)

Gives large role for state in religion and education

Citizen is child of the state

By 1770’s Enlightenment beginning to splinter as a movement

No market for restating what has already been said

The desire to be original, relevant (and profitable) leads some to exaggerate

certain ideas and others to actually oppose/refute earlier works

Rousseau (refer to above)

D’Holbach takes Lockean empiricism to the point that man is a machine

completely determined by outside forces(no soul, no will, no God)

Morals come from nature

Organized religion creates ignorance and thus unhappiness

Even the deists find this “determinism” to be too much-atheism

Condorcet’s vision of man’s progression(in stages) toward perfectibility

…toward a liberal democratic government which sweeps away the

all obstacles(ignorance, tyranny, corruption) to reason

too utopian, unrealistic

his vision is embarassed by events of the Reign of Terror(of

which he is a victim)

Hume’s skepticism about reason, knowledge and truth

Empiricism is uncertain

Sense experiences can only lead to probabilities

Recollected impressions of sense experiences are “bundled” into

ideas by the mind

Ideas are therefore subjective, individual perceptions…

probabilities, not absolute truths

Rationalism is inadequate

I can only apply reason to my personal impressions and

experiences… not to absolute truths

my mind does not contain innate ideas because it only deals

with what my experiences provide

rationalism is limited to math equations, logic, definitions…which

are limited in their usefulness

creates an intellectual crisis …nothing is certain

Immanuel Kant attempts to “salvage” reason after Hume’s devastating attack

The mind takes the empirical data, filters, categorizes and organizes it

according to pre-programmed a priori rules(like a computer)…the

resulting (phenomenal)knowledge is accurate…but why or how this

happens is beyond our intellectual reach(noumenal)

The 19 th century will continue to witness movements that both support and challenge the

Enlightenment