Background/Influences
1) Scholasticism
Emphasis on use of logic (reason)
Schoolmen used it to “prove” and explain doctrines
Used for other purposes in Enlightenment
2) Renaissance
Humanism(faith in man’s potential, freedom)
but always within a Christian framework
interest in scholarship
interest in classical (Greek/Roman) ideas(virtues, wisdom)
part of core curriculum in 17 th ,18 th century university education
influx of scholarship (documents) from collapsed Byzantine Empire
new(or long forgotten) ideas begin to surface
3) Reformation
Successful challenge to monolithic Roman Church
Results in weakening of RCC power and influence
emphasis on learning
increase in educational opportunities
especially within Protestant countries
intellectual counter response of Jesuits
4) Religious Wars
Demonstrates the folly of intolerance
loss of prestige (and influence) for Church(including Protestantism)
increasingly state controlled
focused on maintaining order and good manners
breeds skepticism
5) Age of Exploration
exposure to other cultures around the world
relativity of cultural values and morals
societies without Christianity have morals
skepticism about moral absolutes- Montaigne(On Cannibals)
New technologies and instruments facilitate greater accuracy of
knowledge
6) Scientific Revolution
superiority of rational methodologies for obtaining new
knowledge and truth (Bacon, Newton)
victory of scientific method over traditional authority(Church) in new model
of universe
Challenges to traditional beliefs and availability of new information spark a desire for a
more certain approach to knowledge and truth
Ancient Greek philosophers had explored epistemology (study of knowledge)
Plato – rationalism
Aristotle – empiricism
Medieval Church had brought knowledge under the authority of the Church
“Medieval synthesis” of faith and reason(Aquinas)
Protestant Reformers placed knowledge under the direction of scriptures
17 th century thinkers present new (or at least expanded) models to explain how
reliable knowledge is (or should be) acquired
it is convenient(if not completely accurate) to classify the developments in this
area into 2 different general approaches
1) rationalism 2) empiricism
Rene Descartes Discourse on Method (1637)
Rationalist approach
Dissatisfied with traditional methods of acquiring knowledge
Claims his “method” of knowledge came to him as an epiphany
Most of what we “know” is empirical(experiential) knowledge
It depends on our senses
It can be wrong (only provides probable truths)
Radical doubt exercise
Exalts the superiority of mathematical knowledge(pure reason)
It is absolutely true
The mind naturally recognizes/grasps these type of truths (the Cogito)
a.k.a. Innate, A priori, Intuitive knowledge
God is true/real because my mind intuitively accepts the
reality of a perfect, infinite being. If it wasn’t true my mind
would reject it or not understand it
starting from these absolute, innate, self-evident truths, we deduce
other ideas following his new (Cartesian) method
it is basically the method/approach one uses to solve a complex math equation
1) accept as true only what is proven true(“clear and distinct”)
2) break it down into its component parts and deal with each part separately(deductively)
3) examine it in a orderly ,systematic way( from simple to complex
4) leave nothing out… be thorough
Although this approach is useful in certain fields(physical science) it is harder to
apply rationalism to more subjective areas where humans and values are
involved since it is itself relying on the individual subjective experience
Still Descartes does effectively challenge traditional authorities and views.
He also stirs up others to challenge rationalism…
John Locke Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Empirical approach
Rejects the rationalist approach of Descartes
The mind is a “tabula rasa” (blank slate) at birth
No innate ideas
Our experiences form our knowledge (a posteriori truths)
We have 2 types of experience
1) sensation (outer experience)
from which our mind perceives “sensible qualities.”
“yellow, white, heat, cold, soft, hard, bitter, sweet"
2) reflection (inner experience)
we experience the minds own operations
“ doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing"
simple ideas(red,round,sweet) are combined(inductively) to produce more
complex ideas(cherry)
Empiricism fits with Newton’s “scientific” approach.
Logically analyze sensory(empirical) data to acquire knowledge.
Bring no innate ideas or beliefs into it.
However, concepts that can’t be known through the senses or
experimentally observed (i.e. God) are not necessarily rejected,
they just have to be left out of the realm of knowledge
Empiricism can lead to moral relativity
Right and wrong are based on experience
environmentally determined
many of the 17 th century practitioners not willing to go that far (i.e.Newton)
they are still good Anglicans
Rationalism and empiricism are often presented as 2 opposing approaches when in fact
rationalists acknowledge and affirm empirical ideas and empiricists recognized the
reasonableness of certain intuitive ideas (i.e. Pascal’s wager)
Both schools make distinctions between pure thought (rationalism) and physical
sensory data(empiricism)
17 th century thinkers sought to explain how these two realms were related, or
unified and how they worked
Descartes’ pituitary gland, Spinoza’s pantheism, Leibniz’s monads,
Hobbes’ motion (2 kinds: “vital”-voluntary and “animal” –involuntary)
Unsuccessful…or at least unconvincing
Both rationalism and empiricism led man in the same direction…
away from a God-centered universe toward a man-centered universe
This new confidence in the ability of the rational mind to discover and comprehend truth
leads to the publication of controversial works.
Pierre Bayle Historical and Critical Dictionary(1697)
Most popular beliefs(knowledge) have no “scientific” support
written history is unreliable;
influenced by prejudice and feelings
religions are superstitious
subjective emotions
people believe it because they are gullible
no original sin
“evil” = irrational (going against one’s conscience)
reason dictates ethics
critical accounts of biblical figures, saints, philosophical
systems
Richard Simon Critical History of the Old Testament (1685)
Historical and literary critique of the Bible
Attacks Mosaic authorship of Pentateuch
Beginning of “higher criticism”
Hobbes Leviathan and and Locke Two Treatises on Government
Application of rational principles to political science
Undermine traditional ideas of government (i.e. divine right
absolutism)
human law derives from natural law(Hobbes)
Mans rights are “natural rights” (Locke)
“contract theory” of government
government by the consent of the people…God a non- factor
Hobbes – since “war” is man’s natural state due to his appetitive,
competitive and selfish nature, he contractually transfers/forfeits
natural liberty to an all powerful gov’t (Leviathan)which provides
security, protection and justice
Locke- gov’t’s contracted purpose is to protect natural rights of “life,
liberty and property”…failing to do so breaks
contract…revolution
The Enlightenment
Intellectual framework for rational approach established in 17 th century (see
previous notes)
But little significant impact made because…
Conservative forces (Church, absolutist governments) able to suppress
challenges to tradition (i.e. Galileo’s recantation)
Ideas were revolutionary and difficult to comprehend
i.e. Newton writes in Latin and uses calculus
A very limited audience/market for these new ideas
Scientific societies, Academies
However, indication of some progress seen with…
Fontenelle Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)
Attempt to make the make the discoveries of the
Scientific Revolution (math and physics equations)
understandable to the average reader
Most of the contributions are English (i.e. Locke, Berkley, Newton ) and
therefore have little wider impact
More isolated
Great contentment with pace of change and intellectual climate
Toleration, Whig government is more progressive
No sense of urgency or crisis
By the 18 th century, the new approach begins to spread and be popularized by
writers and thinkers called “philosophes.”
The philosophes
Sought to apply rational approach to different areas of human endeavor and
interest (politics, technology, economics, education, religion, law)
hope to “convert” significant persons to the emerging rational-based world views
and thereby introduce enlightened reforms
The most active and influential of these writers were French
i.e. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot
although they were motivated by the examples in England
i.e. toleration, liberty, constitutional government, law of
evidence
Why France ?
a) importance of the French language
language of educated class
diplomacy
literary language
easier to express ideas
beautiful
b) Europe’s preeminent nation
cultural leader
copied throughout Europe
French tutors in high demand
Wealthy
Europe’s largest population
Popularity of Salons
c) sense of urgency and desire for active reform…
there are ”causes” to be stirred up about
1) religious climate (moderate, mild persecution)
the dogmatic intolerance of Spain or Austria silences all
religious dissent, whereas the (relative)toleration allowed
in Netherlands and England breeds complacency
In France, just enough persecution(i.e censorship,
imprisonment) from the established state church to ignite
indignation
2) social inequities seem more pronounced and egregious in the
“Ancien Regime”
Who was the audience for the philosophes ? Who was interested in these ideas ?
Aristocracy (upper and lower)
Bourgeoisie
Certain rulers (eastern and traditionally despotic nations) – refer to next lecture
But…
Not aimed or too concerned with the common people
Church more influential
Wealthy don’t want them questioning the status quo
In general, ideas were popular if they were compatible with a person’s goals or
didn’t really affect a person’s position. There was enough variety in ideas and
approaches that you could find something to agree with or support
How did Enlightenment ideas spread ?
Books, journals/magazines, salons, coffee houses
In France the writers(philosophes) are not content to simply theorize and
analyze, they want to bring change to society
But, they must deal with censorship and persecution
i.e.Voltaire beaten and jailed on numerous occasions for what he wrote
techniques to avoid censorship
Pseudonyms, manuscripts, Salons, publish in foreign country,
humor/satire, double meaning, innuendo, embed in novels and
plays(antagonist’s part), dictionaries, footnotes, and… the Encyclopedia
Popularity aided by “reading revolution”
book publications and sales quadruples in 18 th century
shift away from devotional literature
reading becomes “private, silent and rapid.’
Rapid consumption of ideas
Women play leading role(hostesses, agenda setters) in Salons.
Tend to bring greater civility to discussions
Although there was no unified program for reform or even agreement on basic concepts
(i.e. monarchy vs democracy) there are certain core concepts that can be associated
with the Enlightenment.
core concepts and characteristics of the Enlightenment:
1) “faith” in reason
rational universe(Newton’s mechanistic universe)
human reason is the only basis by which all things should and can be
understood (secular humanism)
experience above authority
reason is autonomous
2) scientific method (reason) can be applied to all areas of human experience
i.e. Herbert’s inductive approach to religion finds 5 common elements all
religions share…basic tenants of deism
Beccaria’s rational reassessment of criminal punishmen(torture for
confession) would lead to a new enlightened system that would produce
greater justice
Quesnays’s scientific assessment of economics leads to Physiocracy
rejection of mercantilism’s focus on specie accumulation in favor of
surplus agricultural commodities traded in a “free market”
inspires Adam Smith’s treatise on capitalism (Wealth of Nations)
3) Progress
optimism
improved political, economic and social systems
seemingly verified by apparent economic and social improvements
of 18 th century(Agricultural, Commercial and Industrial Revolutions)
English model
need to combat the irrational “evils” of intolerance, ignorance, violence,
cruelty, slavery and economic stagnation
idea of the perfectibility of man(Condorcet, Lessing)
4) attack on Christianity
rejected as a basis for society and morals(Peter Gay)
Criticized for its inconsistencies and hypocrisies
skepticism
Greatly reduced in prestige by 18 th century
To be replaced with Deism(natural religion - clockmaker god
concept) or atheism(d’Holbach) or civil religion (Rousseau)
Gibbon’s analysis of the causes of… The Decline and Fall of
Roman Empire
Controversial assessment of the reasons for Christianity’s
growth(rejection of any supernatural factors)and its role in
the demise of classical culture
Exception: Pascal
other related themes in the philosophes writings include: toleration, liberty, equality,
nature, educational reform, universalism over nationalism
Counter Enlightenment
Movements within both the Protestant and Catholic Church which sought to
revitalize Christian spirituality, life and worship
Lutheran Church – Pietism
Catholic Church – Jansenism
Pascal attempts to show reasonableness of Christianity
Anglican Church – Methodism
Evangelical Revival in Great Britain spreads to the American
colonies(Great Awakening)
[The Enlightenment’s strongly anti-Christian character makes it difficult for
contemporary Christians, who continue to center their belief in faith and scripture, to find
much good. Indeed, the Enlightenment plays a major role in accelerating the
secularization of society. Many of the secular ideologies of the 19 th and 20 th centuries
(Darwin, Freud, Marx) were nurtured in the strongly anti-Christian intellectual
environment carved out by the Enlightenment.]
Leading philosophes of the Enlightenment
1) Montesquieu
Persian Letters
Criticize French society and government
Governed by women (alluding to king’s mistress)
Religion is for the ill and weak
Spirit of the Laws
Comparative study of governments (empirical approach)
Classifications
Monarchy, republics, despotism
concludes:
No one best government for all
Government is affected by nations climate, size, religion,
history, culture
i.e. colder climate makes heart beat more strongly
making its citizens more courageous and confident.
Each nation has its own spirit
Yet, England has the most progressive government
Separation of Powers(misread)
checks and balances
believed France should retain monarchy, but one that is
balanced by “intermediary powers” –specifically the nobility
2) Voltaire
witty, irreverent and edgy, well connected, rich, Anglophile
prolific(70 volumes), diverse(wrote in various genres-incredible literary
skills)…but not original
exposes and attacks injustices and inequities of his society
deist
hates dogma and religious intolerance
stirred by Calas case
Huguenot father convicted/executed for his Catholic son’s
hanging death. Voltaire able to get gov’t commission to overturn
verdict(suicide) and pay family indemnity (1765)
Christ’s life and golden rule are fine, but not organized Church and
priesthood
advocated benevolent despotism(enlightened monarchy)
low view of the common man(”the people”)
hopeful regarding new batch of young eastern monarchs
3) Diderot
co-editor of Encyclopedia(28 volumes)
most significant product of Enlightenment
all the philosophes contributed articles
compendium of historical, scientific and technological
knowledge
goals:
expand whole of human knowledge
change the general way of thinking (based on reason)
critical and analytical approaches
undermine traditional authorities and dogmas
make useful knowledge available
i.e blueprints for machines
improve man and society
4) Rousseau
personally moody, quarrelsome, self-absorbed, anti-establishment
Although considered a philosophe, his ideas evolved to where he actually
contradicts the views of his contemporary thinkers
Emotions over reason
Feelings over senses
Primitive/natural man(the noble savage) over civilized, rational man
Social Contract
Man is naturally good(“born free”) but is corrupted by society(“is
everywhere in chains”)
Man’s natural traits (honesty, kindness, love) are
destroyed by “rational” civilization and replaced by
(greed, jealousy, control)
Government is a necessary evil because man must live in community and
with limited resources…he wants his stuff protected.
Private property is the source of social alienation and conflict
How can man protect his individual freedom as well as his property ?
Willingly enters into a contract whereby all individuals merge their
rights and freedoms into the “General Will” of the whole community.
Governments purpose is to promote this General Will
The common interest(what is best for all) is necessarily what is best
for the individual
Not necessarily what the majority wants
Government might have to force the individual to be free
Emphasis on autonomous freedom and nature
Influence later Romantic movement and environmentalism
His thinking is Utopian(not practically worked out)
Gives large role for state in religion and education
Citizen is child of the state
By 1770’s Enlightenment beginning to splinter as a movement
No market for restating what has already been said
The desire to be original, relevant (and profitable) leads some to exaggerate
certain ideas and others to actually oppose/refute earlier works
Rousseau (refer to above)
D’Holbach takes Lockean empiricism to the point that man is a machine
completely determined by outside forces(no soul, no will, no God)
Morals come from nature
Organized religion creates ignorance and thus unhappiness
Even the deists find this “determinism” to be too much-atheism
Condorcet’s vision of man’s progression(in stages) toward perfectibility
…toward a liberal democratic government which sweeps away the
all obstacles(ignorance, tyranny, corruption) to reason
too utopian, unrealistic
his vision is embarassed by events of the Reign of Terror(of
which he is a victim)
Hume’s skepticism about reason, knowledge and truth
Empiricism is uncertain
Sense experiences can only lead to probabilities
Recollected impressions of sense experiences are “bundled” into
ideas by the mind
Ideas are therefore subjective, individual perceptions…
probabilities, not absolute truths
Rationalism is inadequate
I can only apply reason to my personal impressions and
experiences… not to absolute truths
my mind does not contain innate ideas because it only deals
with what my experiences provide
rationalism is limited to math equations, logic, definitions…which
are limited in their usefulness
creates an intellectual crisis …nothing is certain
Immanuel Kant attempts to “salvage” reason after Hume’s devastating attack
The mind takes the empirical data, filters, categorizes and organizes it
according to pre-programmed a priori rules(like a computer)…the
resulting (phenomenal)knowledge is accurate…but why or how this
happens is beyond our intellectual reach(noumenal)
The 19 th century will continue to witness movements that both support and challenge the
Enlightenment