Unit 2B Cognition

Page 1: Cognition

• AP Psychology, Unit Two focuses on cognition, memory, and intelligence.

Page 2: Learning Target Checklist

• Explain psychological concepts and theories related to:

  • Thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making.

  • Types, structures, and processes of memory.

  • Encoding processes for remembering information.

  • Memory storage processes.

  • Memory retrieval processes.

  • Reasons for memory failure or errors.

  • Modern and historical intelligence theories.

  • Measurement of intelligence.

  • Systemic issues relating to intelligence assessment uses.

  • Measurement and experience of academic achievement compared to intelligence.

Page 3: Module 2.2

• Focus on thinking, problem-solving, judgments, and decision-making.

Page 4: Definition of Cognition

• Cognition encompasses all mental activities:

  • Forming Concepts: Grouping similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

  • Forming Schemas: Frameworks that organize and interpret information.

  • Forming Prototypes: Ideal examples that expedite categorization.

Page 5: Cognitive Processing

• The concept of 'animal' includes all animals, but prototypes help us identify categories, e.g.,

  • When asked to think of 'cat', most envision a house cat (the prototype) instead of larger cats (schema).

  • Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Altering schemas to include new information.

Page 6: Prototypes & Schemas

• Unique animals can challenge existing schemas.

  • Glaucus Atlanticus: A sea slug.

  • Red-lipped Batfish: Has appearance and swimming traits that defy standard categories.

  • Sunda Colugo: Combines traits of bats and marsupials, creating a unique category.

Page 7: Unconventional Animals

• Hummingbird Hawk-Moth, Goblin Shark, Patagonian Mara, Sea Pig, Gobi Jerboa, Sea Lamprey.

Page 8: Definition of Meta-Cognition

• "Thinking about thinking"; involves assessing cognitive tasks and adjusting performance.

Page 9: Thinking Creatively

• Creativity means generating novel and valuable ideas.

  • Robert Sternberg's five components of creativity:

    • Expertise.

    • Imagination.

    • Venturesome personality.

    • Intrinsic motivation.

    • Creative environment.

Page 10: Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking

• Divergent Thinking: Expands potential solutions.

• Convergent Thinking: Narrows down to one best solution.

Page 11: Executive Functioning

• Neurocognitive skills for problem-solving, including:

  • Working memory.

  • Inhibitory control.

  • Set shifting/flexibility.

Page 12: Algorithms vs. Heuristics

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures guaranteeing solutions.

  • Example: Solving equations by trying all possibilities.

• Heuristics: Shortcuts that simplify problem-solving.

  • Example: Subtracting to arrive at the solution quickly instead of trying all numbers.

Page 13: Shortcuts in Problem Solving

• Representative Heuristic: Likelihood assessment based on similarity to prototypes.

• Availability Heuristic: Likelihood based on how readily examples come to mind.

Page 14: Example of Representative Heuristic

• Choosing based on characteristics that fit prototypes, e.g., a poet's traits fitting the notion of a professor vs. truck driver.

Page 15: Example of Availability Heuristic

• Fear of higher crime in Bronx vs. Gary, Indiana, despite statistical differences.

Page 16: Intuition & Insight

• Insight refers to sudden problem-solving realizations ("aha!" moments).

• Intuition involves immediate, effortless responses without conscious reasoning (quick decisions based on experience).

Page 17: Hurdles to Problem-Solving

• Framing: Presentation of information impacts responses.

• Nudge: Influencing decisions subtly through how choices are framed.

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to favor information that supports preconceptions.

• Overconfidence: Overestimating judgment accuracy.

• Fixation and Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative perspectives or uses.

Page 18: Continued Hurdles to Problem-Solving

• Gambler's Fallacy: Misbelief that past random events influence future outcomes.

• Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing investments based on previous investments despite diminishing returns.

Page 19: Puzzles to Encourage Problem-Solving

• Sample puzzles on arranging matches and connecting dots.

Page 20: Think Outside the Box

• Encouragement to apply flexible thinking in problem-solving tasks.

Page 21: Strategy Overview

• Comparison of different strategies for problem-solving with strengths and drawbacks for algorithms, heuristics, insight, and biases.

Page 22: Episode 15 - Cognition

• Introduction to cognitive concepts.

Page 23: Module 2.3 - Introduction to Memory

• The study of memory processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Page 24: Definition of Memory

• Memory is the persistence of learning over time via encoding, storage, and retrieval.

• Retention Measures:

  • Recall: Retrieving information not currently in conscious awareness.

  • Recognition: Identifying previously learned items.

  • Relearning: Learning information more quickly upon re-exposure.

Page 25: Three Stages of Memory

• Encoding: Getting information into memory.

• Storage: Retaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Page 26: Three-Stage Model of Memory

• Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin:

  1. Sensory memory.

  2. Short-term memory processed through rehearsal.

  3. Long-term memory for later retrieval.

Page 27: Memory Terms

• Long-term Memory: Permanent storage with limitless capacity.

• Short-term Memory: Brief storage of a few items (5-9) for 10-30 seconds.

• Sensory Memory: Immediate and brief sensory recording.

• Rehearsal: Conscious repetition for storage.

• Parallel Processing: Simultaneous processing of multiple information aspects.

Page 28: Working Memory

• Active processing of incoming audio and visual information alongside long-term memory.

• Central Executive: Manages attention and divides focus.

• Phonological Loop: Temporarily holds verbal information.

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: Manages visual and spatial information.

Page 29: Synaptic Changes and Learning

• Long-term Potentiation: Strengthening neural connections through practice enhances memory.

Page 30: Module 2.4 - Encoding Memories

• Focus on explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory processes.

Page 31: Encoding Memories

• Explicit Memory: Facts and experiences requiring conscious effort.

• Implicit Memory: Skills and associations retained unconsciously.

Page 32: Types of Long-Term Memories

• Procedural Memories: Skill-based actions (e.g., motor skills).

• Emotional Memories: Responses learned through experience.

Page 33: Odd AP Terms

• Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform planned actions.

• Retrospective Memory: Memory of past events.

Page 34: Sensory Memory Function

• Sensory memory supports working memory through brief recordings of experiences.

  • Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli memory.

  • Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli memory.

Page 35: Limits of Short-Term Memory

• George Miller's Theory: Hinges on storing about 7 items in short-term memory without rehearsal.

Page 36: Types of Long-Term Memory

• Semantic Memory: Abstract factual knowledge.

  • Scripts: Blueprints of social norms and behaviors.

Page 37: Effortful Processing Strategies

• Strategies to enhance memory formation include:

  • Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units.

  • Mnemonics: Memory aids with visual techniques.

  • Spacing Effect: Distributed practice improves retention.

  • Testing Effect: Enhanced memory through retrieval practice.

Page 38: Additional Effortful Processing Strategies

• Method of Loci: Imagining items along an imaginary journey aids memory.

• Categories: Forming hierarchies of concepts assists in organization.

Page 39: Distributed Practice Experiments

• Ebbinghaus noted that spaced study yields better retention than cramming.

Page 40: Maintenance Rehearsal

• Repeating information prolongs its presence in short-term memory for up to 30 seconds.

Page 41: Elaborative Rehearsal

• Method of encoding that focuses on meaningfulness increases long-term retention.

Page 42: Levels of Processing

• Shallow Processing: Basic encoding of words (letters/sounds).

• Deep Processing: Semantic encoding based on meanings enhances retention.

Page 43: Module 2.5 - Storing Memories

• Explores long-term memory and its underlying mechanisms.

Page 44: Long-Term Memory Overview

• Comprises extending storage, lasting for years with unlimited capacity.

Page 45: Retaining Information in the Brain

• Neuroanatomy involved in memory consolidation:

  • Hippocampus & Frontal Lobes: Explicit memories.

  • Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia: Procedural memories.

  • Amygdala: Emotional memories.

Page 46: Memory Processing Types

• Automatic Processing: Implicit memories processed without conscious recall.

• Effortful Processing: Explicit memories processed with conscious recall.

Page 47: Flashbulb Memories

• Emotionally significant memories, such as life events, are typically retained vividly.

Page 48: Memory Storage Comparison

• Sensory Memory: Lasts 0.5-4 seconds.

• Short-term Memory: Lasts 20 seconds.

• Long-term Memory: Lasts years/lifetime.

Page 49: Module 2.6 - Retrieving Memories

• Techniques and principles regarding memory retrieval processes.

Page 50: Retrieval Cues

• Priming: Activation of associations critical to memory recall.

• Encoding Specificity Principle: Memory retrieval enhanced by context.

• State and Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is more accurate when in the same environment/state as learning.

  • Mood-Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall experiences matching current mood.

Page 51: Memory Retrieval Strategies

• Numerous environmental and contextual cues improve retrieval chances.

Page 52: Serial Position Effect

• Tendency to recall the beginning and end of lists better than the middle.

  • Recency Effect: Better recall of last items.

  • Primacy Effect: Better recall of first items.

Page 53: Tip-of-the-Tongue State

• The frustrating sensation that a memory is inaccessible despite being known.

Page 54: List of U.S. Presidents

• Presidents through history relevant for testing recall abilities.

Page 55: Module 2.7 - Forgetting

• Examines the reasons behind forgetting.

Page 56: Reasons for Forgetting

• Types include encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, and repressed memories.

Page 57: Amnesia Types

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

• Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall old memories.

  • Traumatic Amnesia: Due to physical injury.

  • Fugue Amnesia: Linked to trauma.

  • Childhood Amnesia: Inability to recall early memories.

Page 58: Case Study - H.M.

• H.M.: Surgery resulted in inability to form new explicit memories, but could learn skills.

Page 59: Case Study - Clive Wearing

• Notable amnesia case emphasizing retrieval issues.

Page 60: Interference and Retrieval Failure

• Interference: Competing information hinders recall.

  • Proactive Interference: Older info disrupts the recall of new info.

  • Retroactive Interference: New info disrupts the recall of older information.

Page 61: Encoding Failure

• Ineffective encoding leads to forgetting.

Page 62: Decay of Memory

• Decay: Memory fading over time; necessary for cognitive functionality.

Page 63: Ebbinghaus's Findings

• Forgetting Curve: Illustrates rapid initial forgetting that plateaus over time.

Page 64: Influencing Memory Construction

• Imagination and Reconsolidation: Imagination can create or alter memory during recall.

• Source Amnesia: Memory for information without recall of the source.

• Déjà vu: Unfounded sensation of having experienced something before.

Page 65: Misinformation Effect

• Elizabeth Loftus's experiments reveal memory inaccuracies due to misleading information.

Page 66: Memory Construction Accuracy

• Constructive Effect: Memory relies on processing and retrieval, which can distort facts.

• Imagination Inflation: Repeated imagination reinforces belief in events that didn't happen.

Page 67: False Memories

• Difficulty in distinguishing real from false memories; influenced by external inputs.

Page 68: Memory Research Benefit

• Memory studies guide effective learning and memory enhancement techniques.

Page 69: Episode 14 - Remembering and Forgetting

• Review of key concepts on memory retention and loss.

Page 70: Module 2.8 - Intelligence

• Explores definitions and assessments of intelligence.

Page 71: Definition of Intelligence

• Intelligence: capacity to learn, solve problems, and adapt usefully.

Page 72: Nature of Intelligence

• General Intelligence (g): Spearman's theory encompasses diverse mental abilities, raising debate regarding the multiplicity of intelligence.

Page 73: Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

• Intelligence composed of distinct abilities:

  • Verbal comprehension, reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability.

Page 74: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

• Intelligence as multiple abilities; faced critiques regarding empirical support.

Page 75: Intelligence Stability

• Research comparing cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to ascertain intelligence stability through age.

Page 76: Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

• Hierarchical model on intelligence with multiple cognitive abilities including general intelligence and specific tasks.

Page 77: Savant Syndrome

• Giftedness in specific areas despite lower overall intelligence.

Page 78: Triarchic Theory

• Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Analytical, practical, and creative intelligence as comprehensive measures of ability.

Page 79: Sternberg’s Components of Creativity

• Elements defining creativity.

Page 80: Grit & Deliberate Practice

• Effective multi-step training for skill enhancement.

Page 81: Emotional Intelligence

• Ability to manage and understand emotions as predictors of personal and social success.

Page 82: Summary of Intelligence Theories

• Evaluated strengths and criticisms of major intelligence theories.

Page 83: Intelligence Assessment Evolution

• Early studies by Binet and Terman on intelligence evaluation methods and implications.

Page 84: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

• Established intelligence test framework allowing comparative assessment across ages.

Page 85: Types of Tests

• Achievement Tests vs Aptitude Tests: vary in focus on knowledge vs. potential ability.

Page 86: Test Standardization

• Procedures ensuring meaningful score comparisons via pretested sample populations.

Page 87: Test Validity

• Assessment of whether a test accurately measures intended knowledge or skill.

Page 88: Reliability & Validity Types

• Discusses constructs in measuring validity in assessments.

Page 89: Reliability in Testing

• Consistency of test scores across different administrations; importance of repeatability.

Page 90: Test Construction Elements

• Psychometrics: Study of psychological measurement theories and techniques.

Page 91: Frequency Distribution and Percentile Rank

• Discusses how individual scores compare against population scores around the mean.

Page 92: Flynn Effect

• Observational increase in average IQ scores across generations.

Page 93: Intelligence Change with Age

• Cohort studies point to varying impacts of age on types of intelligence.

Page 94: Psychological Theory of Distress

• Memory dynamics affected by trauma or repressed experiences.

Page 95: Gene Influence on Intelligence

• Genetic correlations in intelligence displayed through twin studies.

Page 96: Environmental Impact on Intelligence

• Environmental factors crucial in fulfilling intellectual potential shaped by genetics.

Page 97: Mindset Influence on Intelligence

• Growth mindsets facilitate achievement; fixed mindsets can hinder development.

Page 98: Gender Differences in Intelligence

• Variation in abilities: girls excel in verbal tasks; boys often do better in spatial tasks.

Page 99: Twin Studies Impacts

• Strong genetic influence on intelligence evidenced through behavior patterns in twin studies.

Page 100: Racial/Ethnic Differences in Intelligence

• Group differences in intelligence scores reflect socioeconomic factors more than inherent intelligence.

Page 101: Test-Taker Expectations

• The influence of expectation on performance related to stereotypes and societal beliefs.

Page 102: Bias in Intelligence Testing

• Cultural and contextual biases affect the fairness of intelligence assessments.

Page 103: Extremes of Intelligence

• Conditions categorizing low and high intelligence including intellectual disabilities and exceptional academic prowess.

Page 104: High-Extreme Intelligence Study

• Studies following gifted individuals showing high accomplishment in professional fields.

Page 105: Episode 24 - Brain vs. Bias

• Intersection of cognitive science and bias in assessments.

Page 106: Miscellaneous

• Overview of additional cognitive terms and theories to enhance understanding.

Page 107: Celebrity IQs

• Examples of celebrities with notable IQ scores indicating diverse intelligence.

Page 108: Key Concepts and Terms

• Recap of vital psychological concepts impacting cognition and memory processes.

Cognition

AP Psychology Unit Two focuses on cognition, memory, and intelligence, aiming to explore complex mental processes that govern behavior and understanding.

Learning Target Checklist

• Understand and explain psychological concepts and theories related to:

  • Thinking: Examining the processes involved in thought and reasoning.

  • Problem-Solving: Strategies for finding solutions to difficult or complex issues.

  • Judgment and Decision-Making: How cognitive biases and experiences influence choices.

  • Memory Structures and Processes: Insights into the different types of memory.

  • Encoding Processes for Remembering Information: Methods for effectively transferring information into memory.

  • Memory Storage Processes: Understanding how information is retained over time.

  • Memory Retrieval Processes: Techniques used to access stored memories efficiently.

  • Reasons for Memory Failure or Errors: Exploration of why memories can fail or be distorted.

  • Modern and Historical Intelligence Theories: Investigation of various theories surrounding intelligence over time.

  • Measurement of Intelligence: Assessment methods for evaluating different cognitive abilities.

  • Systematic Issues Relating to Intelligence Assessment Uses: Analysis of fairness, biases, and implications of intelligence testing in diverse populations.

  • Comparison of Academic Achievement and Intelligence: Investigating the relationship between demonstrated academic success and measured intelligence levels.

Module 2.2: Thinking and Problem-Solving

• Focus on cognitive skills required for effective thinking, problem-solving, judgments, and making decisions.

Definition of Cognition

Cognition encompasses a wide array of mental activities, including:

• Forming Concepts: The cognitive ability to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people into categories, facilitating understanding and communication.

• Forming Schemas: Frameworks that organize and interpret information, guiding how new experiences are understood based on prior knowledge.

• Forming Prototypes: Idealized representations or examples that help expedite categorization and recognition processes, making it easier to classify new information.

Cognitive Processing

The concept of 'animal' illustrates cognitive categorization. While all animals fall under this broad category, prototypes help ease identification—for instance:

• When asked to think of a 'cat,' individuals typically envision a house cat (the prototype) rather than larger species, illustrating cognitive biases in categorization.

• Assimilation: The process of fitting new information into existing schemas, reinforcing prior knowledge.

• Accommodation: The adjustment of schemas to incorporate new information, allowing for a more accurate representation of reality.

Prototypes and Schemas

Unique animals can challenge established schemas:

• Glaucus Atlanticus: A uniquely colored sea slug that defies typical categorizations.

• Red-lipped Batfish: Exhibits unusual traits that make it distinct from common categorizations.

• Sunda Colugo: Displays characteristics of both bats and marsupials, leading to a novel classification that combines traits from both categories.

Unconventional Animals

• Additional peculiar examples include:

  • Hummingbird Hawk-Moth: Resembles a hummingbird in flight.

  • Goblin Shark: Notable for its protruding jaw and unique appearance.

  • Patagonian Mara: A large rodent with distinct features.

  • Sea Pig: A marine creature with a unique form and habitat.

  • Gobi Jerboa: An unusual desert rodent known for its leaping abilities.

  • Sea Lamprey: An ancient parasitic fish with a distinctive appearance.

Definition of Meta-Cognition

Meta-Cognition is defined as "thinking about thinking"; it involves the awareness and assessment of cognitive processes, enabling individuals to adjust their performance in various cognitive tasks based on self-reflection.

Thinking Creatively

Creativity is crucial for innovation, defined as the generation of novel and valuable ideas. According to Robert Sternberg, key components of creativity include:

• Expertise: Deep knowledge in a specific area.

• Imagination: The ability to envision new ideas and concepts.

• Venturesome Personality: A willingness to take risks and explore unfamiliar avenues.

• Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in tasks for personal satisfaction rather than external rewards.

• Creative Environment: Supportive spaces that encourage creative thinking and expression.

Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking

• Divergent Thinking: A thought process that expands the range of possible solutions by generating various ideas and options.

• Convergent Thinking: A mental process that aims to narrow down options to find the single best solution to a problem.

Executive Functioning

Executive functioning encompasses neurocognitive skills critical for effective problem-solving, including:

• Working Memory: The ability to hold and manipulate information in mind.

• Inhibitory Control: The capacity to suppress responses in favor of more appropriate choices.

• Set Shifting/Flexibility: Adapting thinking and behavior to changing demands or circumstances.

Algorithms vs. Heuristics

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution; for example, mathematically solving equations through systematic trials of all possibilities.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify problem-solving, exemplified by quick subtraction to reach a solution rather than testing all potential numbers.

Shortcuts in Problem-Solving

• Representative Heuristic: Making likelihood assessments based on how closely an example resembles a prototype.

• Availability Heuristic: Judging the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which examples come to mind, leading to potentially biased perceptions of risk and probability.

Examples of Shortcuts

• Representative Heuristic: Selecting candidates based on characteristics that align with the typical 'image' of a profession (e.g., a professor might fit the traits of a stereotypical academic rather than those of a profession like truck driving).

• Availability Heuristic: Overestimating crime rates in a familiar area (e.g., fear of crime in Bronx compared to Gary, Indiana) based on prevalent media portrayals rather than statistical evidence.

Intuition & Insight

• Insight: Instantaneous problem-solving realizations that can lead to breakthroughs or creative solutions, often described as "aha!" moments.

• Intuition: Quick, effortless responses that arise from past experiences without conscious reasoning, allowing for rapid decision-making based on gut feelings.

Hurdles to Problem-Solving

Common barriers affecting problem-solving include:

• Framing: The manner in which information is presented can significantly affect decision outcomes and perceptions.

• Nudge: Subtly influencing choices through how options are framed or presented can steer decisions.

• Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that aligns with existing beliefs while disregarding counter-evidence can hinder objective reasoning.

• Overconfidence: A tendency to overestimate one's judgment accuracy can lead to poor decision-making.

• Fixation and Functional Fixedness: Inability to see alternative solutions or uses for an item due to rigid thinking patterns.

More Hurdles to Problem-Solving

• Gambler's Fallacy: The incorrect belief that past random events influence future outcomes (e.g., believing that a 'winning streak' will end after several wins).

• Sunk-Cost Fallacy: The tendency to continue investing in a failing endeavor based on prior investments, even when potential for success is minimal.

Puzzles to Encourage Problem-Solving

Various puzzles that promote creative solutions can include tasks such as arranging matches to form shapes or connecting dots in unconventional ways to stimulate thinking and problem-solving skills.

Think Outside the Box

Encouragement to apply flexible thinking in problem-solving tasks, considering alternative perspectives and approaches that may lead to innovative solutions.