Study Guide - Final Exam Notes

Definitions

• Physiology: The study of how living organisms function, including their physical, electrical, and chemical processes.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body despite external changes. It involves feedback mechanisms to regulate variables like temperature, pH, and blood glucose.

• Placebo: An inactive substance or treatment given to a patient, often used as a control in clinical trials. Its effect is psychological rather than physiological.

• Cations: Positively charged ions. Examples include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and calcium (Ca2+).

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are radioactive.

• Active Cellular Transport: The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP). Examples include the sodium-potassium pump.

• Refractory Period: A period following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation. This ensures unidirectional propagation of action potentials.

• Isotonic Muscle Contraction vs. Isometric Muscle Contraction:

  • Isotonic: Muscle changes length while generating force (e.g., lifting a weight).

  • Isometric: Muscle length remains constant while generating force (e.g., pushing against a wall).

• Intercalated Disc: Specialized structures that connect cardiac muscle cells, containing gap junctions and desmosomes. They allow rapid electrical communication and coordinated contraction.

• MI (Myocardial Infarction): Heart attack; damage to the heart muscle due to a blockage of blood supply, often caused by a blood clot in a coronary artery.

• Isovolumic Ventricular Systole: The period during ventricular systole when the ventricles are contracting, but the volume of blood in the ventricles remains constant because the valves are closed.

• Cardiac Output (CO): The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is calculated as CO = Stroke Volume \times Heart Rate.

• Angiogenesis: The formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. It is important in development, wound healing, and tumor growth.

• Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP): The average arterial pressure during a single cardiac cycle. It can be estimated as MAP = Diastolic Pressure + \frac{1}{3}(Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure).

• Erythropoietin: A hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

• Pulmonary Ventilation: The process of moving air into and out of the lungs. It involves inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).

• Surfactant: A substance produced by type II alveolar cells in the lungs that reduces surface tension, preventing the alveoli from collapsing.

• Dalton’s and Boyle’s Laws:

  • Dalton’s Law: The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas.

  • Boyle’s Law: The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, at constant temperature (P1V1 = P2V2).

• Glomerulus: A network of capillaries in the kidney where filtration of blood occurs, forming the initial filtrate that becomes urine.

• Osmoreceptors: Sensory receptors that detect changes in osmotic pressure (the concentration of solutes) in the body fluids.

• Juxtaglomerular Cells: Cells in the kidney that secrete renin in response to low blood pressure or decreased sodium levels.

• ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme): An enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).

• Aldosterone: A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that promotes sodium retention and potassium excretion in the kidneys, increasing blood volume and pressure.

• Chemical Digestion: The breakdown of food molecules by enzymes in the digestive system.

• Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (e.g., amino acids, glycerol) in the liver.

• Acromegaly: A hormonal disorder caused by excessive growth hormone (GH) production in adults, leading to enlargement of the bones of the face, hands, and feet.

• Adrenogenital Syndrome: A group of disorders caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia, resulting in abnormal levels of steroid hormones, including androgens.

• Cretinism: A condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones (congenital hypothyroidism) usually due to maternal hypothyroidism.

• Dwarfism: A condition of short stature caused by genetic or hormonal disorders.

• Exophthalmos: Bulging of the eyeballs, often associated with hyperthyroidism (e.g., Graves' disease).

• X-Linked Diseases: Genetic disorders caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. They are more common in males because they have only one X chromosome. Examples include hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Detailed Descriptions

• Hormonal Classification: Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure (e.g., steroids, peptides, amines) or their mechanism of action (e.g., water-soluble vs. lipid-soluble).

• Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland and Their Functions:

  • Growth Hormone (GH): Promotes growth and development.

  • Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.

  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol.

  • Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males.

  • Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation in females and stimulates testosterone production in males.

  • Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in mammary glands.

• All Phases of Action Potential and Ion Channels Involved in Each:

  1. Resting Membrane Potential: Maintained by the Na+/K+ pump and potassium leak channels.

  2. Depolarization: Influx of Na+ through voltage-gated sodium channels.

  3. Repolarization: Efflux of K+ through voltage-gated potassium channels; sodium channels inactive.

  4. Hyperpolarization: Potassium channels remain open for a brief period, causing the membrane potential to become more negative than the resting potential.

• Production of CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid): CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles of the brain. It cushions the brain and spinal cord, removes waste products, and provides nutrients.

• The Fight-or-Flight Response: A physiological reaction to a perceived threat that prepares the body for rapid action. It involves the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla.

• Sarcomeres: The basic contractile units of muscle fibers. They are composed of actin and myosin filaments arranged in a repeating pattern.

• Neural Reflexes and Their Integration Centers:

  • Reflex Arc: Sensory receptor, sensory neuron, integration center (brain or spinal cord), motor neuron, and effector organ.

  • Integration Centers: Brain (e.g., cranial reflexes) or spinal cord (e.g., spinal reflexes).

• Factors That Increase Blood Pressure:

  • Increased blood volume

  • Increased heart rate

  • Increased stroke volume

  • Increased peripheral resistance (vasoconstriction)

  • Hormones (e.g., angiotensin II, epinephrine)

• Heart Valves:

  • Atrioventricular Valves (AV valves): Mitral (bicuspid) valve (left side) and tricuspid valve (right side). Prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria.

  • Semilunar Valves: Aortic valve (between left ventricle and aorta) and pulmonary valve (between right ventricle and pulmonary artery). Prevent backflow of blood from the aorta and pulmonary artery into the ventricles.

• ECG Waves:

  • P Wave: Atrial depolarization.

  • QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization.

  • T Wave: Ventricular repolarization.

• Different Types of Alveolar Cells and Their Functions:

  • Type I Alveolar Cells: Thin, squamous epithelial cells that form the walls of the alveoli and allow for gas exchange.

  • Type II Alveolar Cells: Cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces surface tension in the alveoli.

  • Alveolar Macrophages: Phagocytic cells that remove debris and pathogens from the alveoli.

• Mechanism of Breathing:

  • Inspiration: Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, decreasing the pressure, and air flows into the lungs.

  • Expiration: Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity, increasing the pressure, and air flows out of the lungs.

• Acid-Base Balance (Respiratory and Renal Control):

  • Respiratory Control: Lungs regulate blood pH by adjusting the rate and depth of breathing, which affects the amount of carbon dioxide (CO_2) in the blood.

  • Renal Control: Kidneys regulate blood pH by excreting or reabsorbing hydrogen ions (H^+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO_3^-).

• Functions of ANGII (Angiotensin II):

  • Vasoconstriction (increases blood pressure)

  • Stimulates aldosterone release (increases sodium retention)

  • Stimulates ADH release (increases water reabsorption)

  • Increases thirst

• RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System): A hormonal system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

• Parts of GI Tract and Their Functions:

  • Mouth: Mechanical and chemical digestion begins.

  • Esophagus: Transports food from the mouth to the stomach.

  • Stomach: Stores food, mixes it with gastric secretions, and begins protein digestion.

  • Small Intestine: Primary site of nutrient absorption. Includes the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

  • Large Intestine: Absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces. Includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.

• Cells of the Stomach and Their Functions:

  • Parietal cells: Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.

  • Chief cells: Secrete pepsinogen (precursor to pepsin).

  • Mucous cells: Secrete mucus, which protects the stomach lining from acid.

  • G cells: Secrete gastrin, which stimulates HCl secretion.

• Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions:

  • Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates.

  • Protease (e.g., pepsin, trypsin): Breaks down proteins.

  • Lipase: Breaks down fats.

• Symptoms of Diabetes Type I:

  • Polyuria (excessive urination)

  • Polydipsia (excessive thirst)

  • Polyphagia (excessive hunger)

  • Weight loss

  • Fatigue

  • Blurred vision

• Results of Starvation:

  • Decreased metabolic rate

  • Muscle wasting

  • Fatigue

  • Weakened immune system

  • Organ damage

• Meiosis: A type of cell division that produces four haploid gametes (sperm or egg cells) from a single diploid cell.

• Inflammation: A complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function.

• All Five Immunoglobulins and Their Functions:

  • IgG: Most abundant antibody in blood. Provides long-term immunity, crosses the placenta to confer immunity to the fetus.

  • IgM: First antibody produced during an infection. Activates complement.

  • IgA: Found in mucous membranes, saliva, tears, and breast milk. Provides localized protection against pathogens.

  • IgE: Involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections. Binds to mast cells and basophils, triggering histamine release.

  • IgD: Functions as a B cell receptor.

Definitions

• Physiology: The study of how living organisms function, encompassing their physical, electrical, and chemical processes. It explores the various systems and organs, examining their interactions and regulatory mechanisms to maintain life.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body despite external changes. It involves feedback mechanisms to regulate variables such as temperature, pH, blood glucose, and electrolyte balance. Disruptions in homeostasis can lead to various diseases and disorders.

• Placebo: An inactive substance or treatment given to a patient, often used as a control in clinical trials. Its effect is psychological rather than physiological, demonstrating the influence of the mind on the body's response to treatment.

• Cations: Positively charged ions crucial for various physiological processes such as nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and maintaining fluid balance. Examples include sodium (Na^+), potassium (K^+), and calcium (Ca^{2+}).

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are radioactive and used in medical imaging and cancer treatment. Radioactive isotopes decay over time, emitting radiation that can be detected or used therapeutically.

• Active Cellular Transport: The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP). Examples include the sodium-potassium pump, which maintains ion gradients essential for nerve and muscle function.

• Refractory Period: A period following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation. This ensures unidirectional propagation of action potentials in neurons and prevents tetanus in muscle cells.

• **Isotonic Muscle Contraction vs. Isometric Muscle Contraction:

  • Isotonic: Muscle changes length while generating force (e.g., lifting a weight). It results in movement.

  • Isometric: Muscle length remains constant while generating force (e.g., pushing against a wall). No movement occurs.

• Intercalated Disc: Specialized structures that connect cardiac muscle cells, containing gap junctions and desmosomes. They allow rapid electrical communication and coordinated contraction of the heart muscle, ensuring efficient pumping of blood.

• MI (Myocardial Infarction): Heart attack; damage to the heart muscle due to a blockage of blood supply, often caused by a blood clot in a coronary artery. It leads to ischemia and necrosis of the heart tissue.

• Isovolumic Ventricular Systole: The period during ventricular systole when the ventricles are contracting, but the volume of blood in the ventricles remains constant because the valves are closed. It occurs before the ejection phase of the cardiac cycle.

• Cardiac Output (CO): The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is calculated as CO = Stroke Volume \times Heart Rate. Factors affecting cardiac output include preload, afterload, and contractility.

• Angiogenesis: The formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. It is important in development, wound healing, and tumor growth. Angiogenesis is regulated by various growth factors and cytokines.

• Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP): The average arterial pressure during a single cardiac cycle. It can be estimated as MAP = Diastolic Pressure + \frac{1}{3}(Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure). MAP is a critical indicator of tissue perfusion.

• Erythropoietin: A hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. It is released in response to hypoxia and is used to treat anemia.

• Pulmonary Ventilation: The process of moving air into and out of the lungs. It involves inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation). Adequate pulmonary ventilation is essential for gas exchange.

• Surfactant: A substance produced by type II alveolar cells in the lungs that reduces surface tension, preventing the alveoli from collapsing. Deficiency of surfactant in premature infants can cause respiratory distress syndrome.

• **Dalton’s and Boyle’s Laws:

  • Dalton’s Law: The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas. This law is essential for understanding gas exchange in the lungs.

  • Boyle’s Law: The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, at constant temperature (P1V1 = P2V2). This law explains how changes in lung volume affect air pressure during breathing.

• Glomerulus: A network of capillaries in the kidney where filtration of blood occurs, forming the initial filtrate that becomes urine. It is part of the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney.

• Osmoreceptors: Sensory receptors that detect changes in osmotic pressure (the concentration of solutes) in the body fluids. They are located in the hypothalamus and trigger the release of ADH to regulate water balance.

• Juxtaglomerular Cells: Cells in the kidney that secrete renin in response to low blood pressure or decreased sodium levels. They are located in the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli.

• ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme): An enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). ACE inhibitors are used to treat hypertension.

• Aldosterone: A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that promotes sodium retention and potassium excretion in the kidneys, increasing blood volume and pressure. It is part of the RAAS and is regulated by angiotensin II.

• Chemical Digestion: The breakdown of food molecules by enzymes in the digestive system. It begins in the mouth with amylase and continues in the stomach and small intestine with various enzymes.

• Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (e.g., amino acids, glycerol) in the liver. It occurs during fasting or starvation to maintain blood glucose levels.

• Acromegaly: A hormonal disorder caused by excessive growth hormone (GH) production in adults, leading to enlargement of the bones of the face, hands, and feet. It is often caused by a pituitary tumor.

• Adrenogenital Syndrome: A group of disorders caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia, resulting in abnormal levels of steroid hormones, including androgens. It can cause virilization in females and precocious puberty in males.

• Cretinism: A condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones (congenital hypothyroidism) usually due to maternal hypothyroidism. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent irreversible damage.

• Dwarfism: A condition of short stature caused by genetic or hormonal disorders. Types include achondroplasia and growth hormone deficiency.

• Exophthalmos: Bulging of the eyeballs, often associated with hyperthyroidism (e.g., Graves' disease). It is caused by inflammation and swelling of the tissues behind the eyes.

• X-Linked Diseases: Genetic disorders caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. They are more common in males because they have only one X chromosome. Examples include hemophilia and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Females can be carriers of these diseases.

Detailed Descriptions

• Hormonal Classification: Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure (e.g., steroids, peptides, amines) or their mechanism of action (e.g., water-soluble vs. lipid-soluble). Steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors, while peptide hormones bind to cell surface receptors.

• **Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland and Their Functions:

  • Growth Hormone (GH): Promotes growth and development by stimulating protein synthesis and cell division. It also affects glucose and lipid metabolism.

  • Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), which regulate metabolism.

  • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, a glucocorticoid that regulates stress response and metabolism.

  • Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. It is essential for reproductive function.

  • Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation in females and stimulates testosterone production in males. It also plays a role in the menstrual cycle.

  • Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in mammary glands after childbirth. It is regulated by dopamine.

• **All Phases of Action Potential and Ion Channels Involved in Each:

  1. Resting Membrane Potential: Maintained by the Na+/K+ pump and potassium leak channels. The typical resting membrane potential is around -70mV.

  2. Depolarization: Influx of Na^+ through voltage-gated sodium channels. The membrane potential becomes more positive.

  3. Repolarization: Efflux of K^+ through voltage-gated potassium channels; sodium channels inactive. The membrane potential returns to negative values.

  4. Hyperpolarization: Potassium channels remain open for a brief period, causing the membrane potential to become more negative than the resting potential. This is due to the slow closing of potassium channels.

• Production of CSF (Cerebrospinal Fluid): CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles of the brain. It cushions the brain and spinal cord, removes waste products, and provides nutrients. CSF circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space.

• The Fight-or-Flight Response: A physiological reaction to a perceived threat that prepares the body for rapid action. It involves the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla. Physiological changes include increased heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose release.

• Sarcomeres: The basic contractile units of muscle fibers. They are composed of actin and myosin filaments arranged in a repeating pattern. Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction.

• **Neural Reflexes and Their Integration Centers:

  • Reflex Arc: Sensory receptor, sensory neuron, integration center (brain or spinal cord), motor neuron, and effector organ. Reflexes are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli.

  • Integration Centers: Brain (e.g., cranial reflexes) or spinal cord (e.g., spinal reflexes). The integration center processes the sensory information and generates a motor response.

• **Factors That Increase Blood Pressure:

  • Increased blood volume: Increases preload and cardiac output.

  • Increased heart rate: Increases cardiac output.

  • Increased stroke volume: Increases cardiac output.

  • Increased peripheral resistance (vasoconstriction): Increases afterload.

  • Hormones (e.g., angiotensin II, epinephrine): Cause vasoconstriction and increase blood volume.

• **Heart Valves:

  • Atrioventricular Valves (AV valves): Mitral (bicuspid) valve (left side) and tricuspid valve (right side). Prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria. These valves open during diastole and close during systole.

  • Semilunar Valves: Aortic valve (between left ventricle and aorta) and pulmonary valve (between right ventricle and pulmonary artery). Prevent backflow of blood from the aorta and pulmonary artery into the ventricles. These valves open during systole and close during diastole.

• **ECG Waves:

  • P Wave: Atrial depolarization. It indicates that the atria are contracting.

  • QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization. It represents the spread of electrical activity through the ventricles.

  • T Wave: Ventricular repolarization. It indicates that the ventricles are recovering from contraction.

• **Different Types of Alveolar Cells and Their Functions:

  • Type I Alveolar Cells: Thin, squamous epithelial cells that form the walls of the alveoli and allow for gas exchange. They cover about 95% of the alveolar surface.

  • Type II Alveolar Cells: Cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces surface tension in the alveoli. They also can differentiate into Type I cells if those cells are damaged

  • Alveolar Macrophages: Phagocytic cells that remove debris and pathogens from the alveoli. They are part of the innate immune system.

• **Mechanism of Breathing:

  • Inspiration: Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, decreasing the pressure, and air flows into the lungs. This is an active process.

  • Expiration: Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity, increasing the pressure, and air flows out of the lungs. This is a passive process during normal breathing.

• **Acid-Base Balance (Respiratory and Renal Control):

  • Respiratory Control: Lungs regulate blood pH by adjusting the rate and depth of breathing, which affects the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood. Hyperventilation decreases CO2 and increases pH, while hypoventilation increases CO_2 and decreases pH.

  • Renal Control: Kidneys regulate blood pH by excreting or reabsorbing hydrogen ions (H^+) and bicarbonate ions ($$HCO_3^-$). The kidneys can compensate for respiratory imbalances.

• **Functions of ANGII (Angiotensin II):

  • Vasoconstriction (increases blood pressure): Acts on blood vessels to narrow them.

  • Stimulates aldosterone release (increases sodium retention): Acts on the adrenal cortex.

  • Stimulates ADH release (increases water reabsorption): Acts on the hypothalamus.

  • Increases thirst: Acts on the brain to promote fluid intake.

• RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System): A hormonal system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. It is activated by low blood pressure or decreased sodium levels.

• **Parts of GI Tract and Their Functions:

  • Mouth: Mechanical and chemical digestion begins. Saliva contains amylase, which breaks down carbohydrates.

  • Esophagus: Transports food from the mouth to the stomach via peristalsis.

  • Stomach: Stores food, mixes it with gastric secretions, and begins protein digestion. Gastric secretions include HCl and pepsin.

  • Small Intestine: Primary site of nutrient absorption. Includes the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum receives secretions from the pancreas and liver.

  • Large Intestine: Absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces. Includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus. The colon harbors bacteria that ferment undigested material.

• **Cells of the Stomach and Their Functions:

  • Parietal cells: Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor. HCl helps denature proteins and kill bacteria, while intrinsic factor is essential for vitamin B12 absorption.

  • Chief cells: Secrete pepsinogen (precursor to pepsin). Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller peptides.

  • Mucous cells: Secrete mucus, which protects the stomach lining from acid and pepsin.

  • G cells: Secrete gastrin, which stimulates HCl secretion by parietal cells.

• **Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions:

  • Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates into sugars. Salivary amylase begins carbohydrate digestion in the mouth, and pancreatic amylase continues it in the small intestine.

  • Protease (e.g., pepsin, trypsin): Breaks down proteins into amino acids. Pepsin is active in the stomach, while trypsin and other proteases are active in the small intestine.

  • Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase is the main enzyme responsible for fat digestion.

• **Symptoms of Diabetes Type I:

  • Polyuria (excessive urination): Due to the osmotic effect of high glucose levels in the urine.

  • Polydipsia (excessive thirst): Due to dehydration from polyuria.

  • Polyphagia (excessive hunger): Due to the inability of cells to use glucose for energy.

  • Weight loss: Due to the breakdown of muscle and fat for energy.

  • Fatigue: Due to the lack of energy.

  • Blurred vision: Due to the effect of high glucose levels on the lens of the eye.

• **Results of Starvation:

  • Decreased metabolic rate: The body conserves energy by slowing down metabolic processes.

  • Muscle wasting: The body breaks down muscle tissue for energy.

  • Fatigue: Due to the lack of energy.

  • Weakened immune system: Due to the lack of nutrients needed for immune function.

  • Organ damage: Prolonged starvation can lead to organ failure.

• Meiosis: A type of cell division that produces four haploid gametes (sperm or egg cells) from a single diploid cell. It involves two rounds of division (meiosis I and meiosis II) and crossing over, which increases genetic diversity.

• Inflammation: A complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. It involves the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine and cytokines.

• **All Five Immunoglobulins and Their Functions:

  • IgG: Most abundant antibody in blood. Provides long-term immunity, crosses the placenta to confer immunity to the fetus. It neutralizes toxins, opsonizes pathogens, and activates complement.

  • IgM: First antibody produced during an infection. Activates complement. It is effective at agglutinating pathogens.

  • IgA: Found in mucous membranes, saliva, tears, and breast milk. Provides localized protection against pathogens. It prevents pathogens from adhering to mucosal surfaces.

  • IgE: Involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infections. Binds to mast cells and basophils, triggering histamine release. Histamine causes vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels.

  • IgD: Functions as a B cell receptor. It plays a role in B cell activation and differentiation.