Key Apush Terms

PERIOD 1: 1491-1607

PERIOD 2: 1607-1754

1. British Policies

   1. Navigation Acts- controls colonial trade in order to make all trade to flow through the British

   2. Salutary Neglect- so long as colonists are paying their taxes, British implement little direct control over colonies, leads to greater levels of self-government and independent identity within the American colonies

   3. Mercantilism- policy to accumulate as much material wealth as possible to create a favorable balance of trade.  Colonies exist in order to benefit the mother country

PERIOD 3: 1754-1800

1. British Policies

   1. Treaty of Paris- 1763- Ends French & Indian/Seven Years’ War.  Largely removes French control in North America.  The British debt resulting from the war leads to increased taxation & tension over the American colonists.

   2. Proclamation of 1763- British prevent colonists from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains in order to limit conflict between colonists and Native Americans in order to lessen British financial obligations in the colonies

   3. Stamp Act- 1765- Direct taxation on all printed materials in the colonies, led to more organized resistance to Parliamentary decisions by American colonists

   4. Quartering Act- 1765- provides for housing of British soldiers in colonial housing, increases tensions between colonists and British

2. American Policies

   1. Treaty of Paris- 1783- Ended the Revolutionary War, guaranteeing American independence, borders expanding to the Mississippi River, British abandonment of western forts, guarantee of fishing rights in the Atlantic, restoration of property on both sides and the guarantee of all debts incurred by American citizens.  Concerns over the enforcement of this agreement contributed to the War of 1812.

   2. Northwest Ordinance-1787- creates the procedure for the settlement of new territories as well as processes for these territories to become states.  Also bars slavery within the territory

3. George Washington, No Party, (1789-1797) 

   1. Neutrality Proclamation-1794- The United States will not intervene in French Revolution despites pleas from French representative Citizen Genet and protests from Francophile Thomas Jefferson.  Claims the United States does not have the economic nor military stability to support a foreign war.  Sets standard eventually furthered in Farewell Address and continued through World War II

   2. Jay’s Treaty- 1794- British agreed to removal of troops from western frontier and to normalize the border between the United States and British Canada.  Criticized by Jeffersonians as capitulation to the British, contributed to further polarization and the beginning of the First PArty System

   3. Pinckney’s Treaty- 1795- 

4. John Adams, FEDERALIST (1797-1801)

   1. Alien & Sedition Act- 1798- increased the amount of time needed for immigrants to gain citizenship and heavily restricted the ability of Americans to criticize the government.  Democratic-Republicans respond with Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions which introduce the concept of nullification

Period 4: 1800-1848

1. Thomas Jefferson, DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN (1801-1809)

   1. Embargo Act- 1807- cuts off most international trade in order to avoid British and French attacks on American mercantile trade. Fails and negatively impacts US economy

   2. Non-Intercourse Act- 1809- reopens trade with countries EXCEPT England & France in an attempt to rebuild American economy.  Not overly effective as majority of American trade prior to Embargo Act

2. James Madison, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAN (1809-1817)

   1. Macon’s Bill #2- 1810- Offers to open up trade to either England or France, whichever agrees to stop attacking American trade first.  Napoleon agrees, and then continues attacking American trade anyway.  Eventually leads to the War of 1812.

   2. American System- 1816- plan by Henry Clay to improve overall American economy and unify three sections of the country through protective tariffs, rechartering of National Bank and federal funding for internal improvements.  Bank & Tariff are approved, internal improvement bill in vetoed by Madison as being unconstitutional

3. James Monroe, DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN (1817-1825)

   1. Missouri Compromise- 1820- Missouri becomes slave state, Maine becomes free state. No slavery above 36’30” in Lousiana Territory.  Exposes existing sectional rifts in the US.  Maintains balance of power in Senate

   2. Monroe Doctrine- 1823- US will stay out of European affairs and Europe will not attempt to re-colonize Latin America in the wake of the revolutions of the early 19th century.  Only enforceable thanks to British support.  Has minimal usage until end of 19th century

4. John Quincy Adams DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICAN(1825-1829)

   1. Tariff of 1828- Drastically increases tariffs on imported goods.  Hurts South to a much greater extent as they have a cash crop economy and are dependent on foreign trade for their manufactured goods.  Leads to the Nullification Crisis during the Jackson administration. South Carolina threatens to secede and utilizes nullification argument

5. Andrew Jackson, DEMOCRAT (1829-1837)  SECOND PARTY SYSTEM DEMOCRATS VS WHIGS

   1. Indian Removal Act- 1830- Pushes Native American nations in the Southeast west of the Mississippi River in order to “protect” them from white settlers.  Most end up settling in Indian territory (Oklahoma) after the Trail of Tears in which thousands die.

   2. Bank Veto-1832- Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter of the National Bank, supported by Nicholas Biddle & Henry Clay, in order to restore power to the farmers and laborers and restrict power of eastern banking elite.  Jackson wins reelection in 1832, but lack of centralized bank contributes to the Panic of 1837.

   3. Force Bill- 1833- gives the federal government the power to collect tariffs in states which are attempting to nullify federal law.  Essentially threatening to invade South Carolina if they don’t comply.  Conflict is avoided by the Compromise Tariff of 1833(Henry Clay!).  SC nullifies Force Bill once its impact in minimized

   4. Specie Circular- 1836- Forces federal land to be purchased using gold or silver (hard money or “specie”) in an attempt to reduce land speculation and banking failures, especially amongst Jackson’s pet banks and wildcat banks in the West.  Fails and leads to Panic of 1837

   5. Gag Rule-1836- Prevents the discussion of petitions to end slavery in Congress.  Abolitionists had begun massive petitionin of the federal government to intervene in southern slavery.  Violates the 1st Amendment, but slavery sympathizers control congress.  Eventually eliminated in 1844.

6. Martin Van Buren, DEMOCRAT (1837-1841)

7. William Henry Harrison, WHIG(1841-1841) DIED FROM TYPHOID FEVER CAUSED BY BAD PLUMBING

8. John Tyler WHIG( but kicked out of party while president!!)(1841-1845)

   1. Texas Annexation- 1845 - Texas had been an independent nation after the Texan Rebellion in 1836, but presidents had resisted annexation out of fear of Texan debt and upsetting the balance of power in the Senate.  Tyler pushes annexation, especially after Democrats(Polk) win the election of 1844. Had 15(!!!!) children with two wives and still has a living grandson, whose father was born when Tyler was 70(!!)

PERIOD 5: 1844-1877

1. James K. Polk, DEMOCRAT (1845-1849)

   1. Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo- 1848- ended the Mexican American War and creates the Mexican Cession(California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico)  This annexation leads to further debate on the status of slavery in the territories.

2. Zachary Taylor, WHIG (1849-1850) DIES AFTER EATING RAW FRUIT & ICED MILK!!/CHOLERA

3. Millard Fillmore, WHIG (1850-1853)

   1. Compromise of 1850- Henry Clay’s last gasp.California is admitted as a free state, Texas territory is capped at the 36’30” line, expanded Fugitive Slave Act, elimination of the slave trade in Washington, DC, popular sovereignty for Utah & New Mexico territories.  Temporary solution to tensions over the expansion of slavery.  Each bill is passed independently as all 5 bills combined did not have enough support from various interests within Congress

4. Franklin Pierce, DEMOCRAT (1853-1857)

   1. Kansas-Nebraska Act- 1854- Introduces popular sovereignty(Stephen Douglas)  into both territories.  Essentially eliminates the Missouri Compromise as both territories are above the 36’30'' line.  While Nebraska is assumed to be a free state, both pro- and anti-slavery forces begun migrating into Kansas in order to influence the eventual vote creating a mini-Civil War known as Bleeding Kansas.

5. James Buchanan, DEMOCRAT (1857-1861)

6. Abraham Lincoln, REPUBLICAN (1861-1865) ASSASSINATED

   1. Homestead Act -1862- Guaranteed free 160 acres of land to whites in the West if they “improved” the land for 5 years.  Encouraged westward movement and expansion, but most farms failed. Does negatively impact relations with Native Americans. 

   2. Pacific Railway Act- 1862- Provided for the construction of a transcontinental railroad to speed up transit between the Atlantic and PAcific coasts. Railroad is completed in 1869, largely built by Chinese & Irish immigrants and former slaves.

   3. Morrill Land Grant Act-1862- sets aside land for public colleges to teach engineering, agriculture and military tactics across the United States.  Most large state colleges in the Midwest and South were created with land from this act. Many HBCUs were also created by an expansion of this act in 1890. All of these acts were passed when Southern Democratic Congressmen had left Congress, allowing for an expansion of federal power during the Civil War.

   4. Emancipation Proclamation- 1863- Freed all the slaves in territories in rebellion against the Union.  Does not free slaves in the border states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland & Delaware), nor in areas reconquered by the Union army (Louisiana, Tennessee, etc).  Does act as a precursor to the 13th Amendment and changes the war to a moral war, which helps to prevent England and France from continuing to help the Confederacy.  Also inspires many slaves to flee to Union lines in hopes of freedom.

7. Andrew Johnson, NATIONAL UNION (1865-1869)

   1. 13th Amendment- 1865- Abolishes slavery except for as a punishment for crime.  Freed all slaves throughout the country, including the former Confederate states.  Must be accepted by Southern states before full readmittance into the Union.

   2. 14th Amendment- 1868- Guarantees citizenship and equal protection under the law to all people born in the United States.  Was also intended to punish former Confederate leaders but that part is largely ignored.  Rights of African-Americans are often limited by the Supreme Court (Slaughterhouse Cases, etc).  Has been significant in the expansion of rights to other minority groups throughout American history.  Has also been used to guarantee the same rights to corporations as to individuals (???????)

8. Ulysses S. Grant, REPUBLICAN (1869-1877)

   1. 15th Amendment- 1870- prevents voting discrimination based on race or previous condition of servitude.  Met with limited success initially as some African-Americans are voted into local and state legislatures as well as Congress.  Ultimately limited by literacy tests, poll taxes, voter ID laws, etc.  Also caused a split in the women’s movement

   2. Enforcement  Act- 1870- allows the federal government to pursue and prosecute the KKK in the South, who were largely being exonerated by Southern legislatures and juries. Is actually successful at largely destroying the KKK until its reemergence in the 1910s

Period 6: 1865-1900

1. Rutherford B. Hayes, REPUBLICAN (1877-1881)

   1. Compromise of 1877- Coming out of a disputed and divided election, Democrats, represented by Samuel Tilden, agree to let Republicans, represented by Rutherford B. Hayes, win the presidency in exchange for the end of military reconstruction and the removal of American troops from the South.  This essentially ends Reconstruction and ends any semblance of civil rights for African-Americans in the South until the 1960s.

   2.  

2. James A. Garfield , REPUBLICAN (1881-1881) ASSASSINATED

3. Chester A. Arthur, REPUBLICAN (1881-1885)

   1. Chinese Exclusion Act- 1882-  Eliminates the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States in response to pressure from California.  Few skilled workers are allowed to immigrate, but have to pass through stringent hoops in order to do so.  Not repealed until 1943

4. Grover Cleveland, DEMOCRAT (1885-1889)

   1. Dawes Act- 1887- Attempts to weaken tribal unity by assimilating Native Americans into farmers.  Land given to Native Americans was often poor and largely resulted in the seizing of more land by the federal govt and movement of more Native Americans onto reservations. Connect to the boarding schools and Helen Hunt Jackson’s A Century of Dishonor

   2. Interstate Commerce Act- 1887- attempted to regulate railroad companies through the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission.  Power is later expanded to include other modes of transportation.  Although it was supposed to be a check on big business, its impact was largely limited by the Supreme Court.

5. William Henry Harrison, REPUBLICAN (1889-1893)

   1. Sherman Antitrust Act- 1890- Intended to limit the power of monopolies that had been forming throughout the late 19th century by making illegal any agreement which restricted freedom of trade.  Ultimately used to restrict labor unions as opposed to big business. 

   2. Sherman Silver Purchase Act- 1890- Increased the amount of silver to be purchased by the federal government to utilize as currency.  Encouraged by the Farmers’ Alliance (later Populist Party), but the resulting purchase of gold by individual investors contributed to the Panic of 1893.  Eventually overturned by the Gold Standard Act of 1900, ending American bimetallism and leading the to decline of the Populist Party

6. Grover Cleveland, DEMOCRAT (1893-1897)

7. William McKinley, REPUBLICAN(1897-1901) ASSASSINATED

PERIOD 7: 1890-1945

1. William McKinley, REPUBLICAN (1897-1901) ASSASSINATED AGAIN

   1. Teller Amendment- 1898- Stated the United States had no territorial ambitions while “assisting” the Cubans in their revolt against the Spanish at the outset of the Spanish-American War

   2. Platt Amendment- 1901- Provides terms for American withdrawal from Cuba, but also guarantees US control over Cuban foreign policy and permanent naval base at Guantanamo Bay.  Foreign policy control ends under Good Neighbor Policy of FDR in the 1930s

2. Theodore Roosevelt, REPUBLICAN (1901-1909)

   1. Pure Food & Drug Act & Meat Inspection Act- 1906- First consumer protection laws in US history which heavily regulated what types of products could be used in food & drugs as well as how products were labeled.  Largely in response to the publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair

   2. Hepburn Act- 1906 & Mann-Elkins Act-1910- Increased regulation over the railroads in setting prices and gave the Interstate Commerce Commission greater power over the railroads. Heavily influenced by the work of Ida Tarbell in exposing the corruption of Standard Oil

3. William Howard Taft, REPUBLICAN (1909-1913)

4. Woodrow Wilson, DEMOCRAT (1913-1921) TECHNICALLY SURVIVED HIS PRESIDENCY

   1. 16th Amendment- 1913- allows Congress to impose an income tax on Americans.  This had been previously determined to be unconstitutional in Pollock v Farmers Loan Trust & Co. Reduces significance of tariffs as a means to raise revenue for the government

   2. 17th Amendment- 1913- Allows for the direct popular election of Senators, eliminating the previous method of having state legislatures choose Senators as prescribed by the Constitution.  Theoretically leads to less corruption in government as a response the laissez-faire attitude of many Senators toward the affairs of big business during the industrial revolution

   3. Federal Reserve Act- 1913- creates a new central banking system intended to help regulate the wild swings in the economy which had been causing over speculation and economic panics every 20 years. Sets goals of encouraging maximum employment, stable prices and moderate long-term interest rates.

   4. Clayton Antitrust Act- 1914- Meant to reform the Sherman Antitrust Act to provide greater protection to labor unions and stricter control over monopolies

   5. Espionage Act- 1917- Prevents interference with military operations or military recruitment during World War I.  Although it seemingly violated the 1st Amendment, it was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court in Schenck v. US

   6. 18th Amendment-1919- Prohibits the sale, production or consumption of alcohol in the United States.  Passed in the midst of the First Red Scare and concerns about immigrants after World War I. Eventually repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933, but still led to the rise of organized crime in 1920s and contributed to the culture of speakeasies and jazz during the roaring 20s

   7. 19th Amendment- 1920- Prevents deiscrimination in voting based on sex.  Result of the women’s rights movement who had been advocating for women’s suffrage since the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.  Leads to increase in women’s advocacy and original proposal of the Equal Rights Amendment by figures like Alice Paul and Margaret Sanger in the 1920s.

5. Warren Harding, REPUBLICAN (1921-1923) HEART ATTACK, SURPRISING WHILE WITH HIS ACTUAL WIFE

   1. Emergency Quota Act-1921- restricted immigration to 3% of a nation’s population within the United States as of 1910.  Largely passed in response to the First Red Scare and fears about anarchism and other “non-American” philosophies and increased immigration from Southern & Eastern Europe

   2. Four- Five- & Nine-Power Treaty- 1921- All passed at the Washington Naval Conference.  These attempts to preserve world peace by limiting the construction and maintenance of national militaries.  Were effective in the 1920s, but largely ignored by the 1930s

6. Calvin Coolidge, REPUBLICAN (1923-1929)

   1. National Origins Act/Johnson-Reed Act-1924- bans all immigration from Asia and reduces previous quota to 2% of 1890 population, before the drastic increase in “new” immigrants

7. Herbert Hoover, REPUBLICAN (1929-1933)

   1. Hawley-Smoot Tariff- 1930- Increased taxes on foreign trade in order to encourage Americans to buy more American goods in the wake of the Great Depression.  This was met by reciprocal tariff increases by foreign countries and a drastic decrease in overall international trade.

   2. Reconstruction Finance Corporation Act- 1932- provided financial support to state and local governments and loans to banks, businesses,etc in an attempt to address the Great Depression.  Although it did prove some level of effectiveness in the long-term, its trickle-down appearance made it unpopular with the American public and contributed to Hoover’s unpopularity

8. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, DEMOCRAT (1933-1945) CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE WHILE ON VACATION WITH HIS MISTRESS

   1. Emergency Banking Act- 1932- helps to increase confidence in the banking system in the wake of mass bank closures and holidays during the Hoover administration.  Also helps to create the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation(FDIC) to reduce impact of future depressions.

   2. Federal Emergency Relief Administration(FERA)- 1933- creates new unskilled jobs in local, state and federal government in order to give direct relief to American citizens.  Eventually replaced by the Works Progress Administration(WPA) in 1935

   3. Securities Act- 1933- created to regulate the stock market through the Securities and Exchange Commission in order to prevent future manipulation of the stock market.

   4. National Industrial Recovery Act(NIRA)- 1933-  Creates the National Recovery Administration(NRA)  to regulate prices and industrial practices in order to prevent inflation and encourage economic recovery.  Eventually declared unconstitutional by Schechter v. US

   5. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)- 1933- designed to artificially maintain high agricultural prices by limiting agricultural surpluses.  This included paying farmers not to grow crops, as well as the mass slaughter of animals to prevent them from depressing market values.  Eventually declared unconstitutional by US v. Butler

   6. Glass-Steagall Act- 1933- separated commercial and investment banking in an attempt to limit corruption within the banking system.  Is eventually repealed in the 1990s by Bill Clinton, which helped contribute to the financial crisis of 2008

   7. Tennessee Valley Authority Act- 1933- Creates the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in order to build dams and other infrastructure throughout the South, helping to provide electricity to wide swaths of the South.  Still in existence today.

   8. National Housing Act- 1934- provides mortgage insurance to prevent more people from getting mortgages and purchasing homes.

   9. National Labor Relations Act/Wagner Act- 1935- guarantees the right of workers to unionize, collectively bargain & strike. Also creates the National Labor Relations Board to adjudicate disputes between labor and management. Eventually weakened by Taft-Hartley Act in 1947

   10. Neutrality Act of 1935- imposes banning on trade with all nations engaged in a war.  Passed in response to the findings of the Nye Committee regarding American involvement in World War I being driven by weapons manufacturers, as well as aggression by Germany, Italy & Japan 

   11. Social Security Act- 1935- Creates Social Security to provide pensions to the elderly, allowing them to leave the workforce and open up jobs for younger people, reducing unemployment.  Is effective at reducing elderly poverty and is later expanded to other populations during the Great Society programs of LBJ.

   12. Neutrality Act of 1936- Additionally barred loans to belligerents, but did not include those engaged in civil wars, which allowed many American corporations to sell/loan over $100 million to Franco in Spain

   13. Executive Order 7034/Works Progress Administration- 1937- federal agency employing millions of workers in building roads, bridges and other forms of infrastructure around the country

   14. Neutrality Act of 1937- Additionally barred weapon sales and loans to Spain, but created the Cash & Carry program which would allow nations to purchase goods from the US so long as they transported the goods themselves and paid upfront.  FDR undermines the act by selling weapons to China, but having them transported on British ships, therefore technically upholding the law

   15. Neutrality Act of 1939- repeals 1935 & 1937 laws and expands cash & carry to nations who are not the aggressor, but are engaged in war to allow for sales to Britain & France in their fight against Germany

   16. Destroyers for Bases Deal- 1940- The United States exchanged American ships for British possessions in Canada and the Caribbean

   17. Smith Act- 1940- Made it a federal crime to advocate for the violent overthrow of the American government. Also allows for the deportation of immigrants who have drug convictions or weapons violations.  Heavily used during the Second Red Scare, it eventually declared largely unconstitutional by Yates v. US in 1957

   18. Lend-Lease Act -1941- Allowed for the United States to “Lend” munitions, food and other supplies to allied nations such as England, France, USSR & China.  Effectively ends American neutrality in WWII.  Some ships were actually returned at the end of the war.

   19. Executive Order 8802- 1941- Prevents racial discrimination in employment in national defense industries.  Passed to prevent a massive protest march on Washington by African-Americans led by A. Philip Randolph & Walter White 

   20. Executive Order 9066- 1942- Moved Japanese-Americans to internment camps for “national security” reasons in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor.  The internment was upheld as constitutional by Korematsu v. US in 1944.  Officially overturned by Gerald Ford in 1976.  Internees given reparations by George H.W. Bush in 1989

PERIOD 8: 1945-1980

1. Harry S. Truman DEMOCRAT, (1945-1953)

   1. Truman Doctrine -1947- Vows to provide aid to native populations resisting the spread of communism, specifically in Greece & Turkey. Represents US disbanded its traditional isolationist foreign policy and outlines the future American policy of containment

   2. Executive Order 9835/Loyalty Order- 1947- attempting to root out communist influence in government at the beginning of the Cold War, led to the questioning of thousands of government employment and eventually the rise of Joseph McCarthy and HUAC during the Second Red Scare

   3. Executive Order 9981- 1948- desegregated the American military in the wake of World War II and a rash of attacks on African-American veterans in the South.

   4. Marshall Plan/European Recovery Program-1948- provides billions in aid to European countries economically struggling in the wake of World War II in order to prevent the spread of communism.

   5. NSC-68-1950- advocates for the expansion of the US military and nuclear capabilities in order to combat the threat of Soviet communism.  LArgely indirect response to the detonation of a Soviet nuclear weapon in 1949 and the fall of China to communism the same year.

2. Dwight D. Eisenhower, REPUBLICAN(1953-1961)

   1. Federal Highway Act- 1956- Creates the interstate highway system to facilitate the movement of military personnel and supplies in light of perceived Soveit threats to the United States.  Contributes to more widespread leisure travel during the economic boom of the 1950s as well as migration to the suburbs.

   2. Eisenhower Doctrine- 1957- provides aid or military assistance to Middle Eastern nations being threatened by armed aggression. Nominally in response to the Suez crisis of 1956, but ultimately was aimed at limiting the emergence of Arab nationalism and Soviet influence

   3. Civil Rights Act of 1957- intended to protect the voting rights of African Americans, the bill was largely weakened by Southern Congressman and had limited impact.  However, it did set precedent as the first civil rights act passed since 1875

   4. National Defense Education Act- 1958-provides additional federal funding for education, specifically in STEM fields to combat perceived Soveit advantage in the sciences in the wake of the launching of Sputnik in 1957

   5. National Aeronautics and Space Act- 1958- Creates NASA to help coordinate American efforts in space exploration for both scientific and military purposes

   6. Civil Rights Act of 1960-Allows for federal inspection of voter registration and penalization of those attempting to prevent others from registering.

3. John F. Kennedy, DEMOCRAT (1961-1963) ASSASSINATED

   1. Clean Air Act- 1963- allowed for the federal government to take direct action in preventing pollution.  LAter expanded under Johnson, Nixon, Carter & H.W. Bush administrations.

4. Lyndon B. Johnson, DEMOCRAT (1963-1969)

   1. Civil Rights Act of 1964- Outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin in voting, employment, education & public accomodations.  Later expanded to include sexual orientation and gender identity, Contributes to the splitting of the Democratic Party and was passed in the wake of the assassination of JFK.  It’s limited immediate impact contributes to the growth of black power movements in the 1960s

   2. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - 1964- Also known as the Blank Check Resolution, gave the president expanded powers to engage in the war in Vietnam.  Although the incident which inspired the resolution was mired in doubt, it was used to justify a drastic increase in American military involvement in Vietnam throughout the Johnson administration.  Eventually limited by the War Powers Act in 1973, which restored greater war powers to Congress

   3. Economic Opportunity Act of 1964- creates local community action organizations in order to expand educational and vocational opportunities for those living in impoverished areas.Also creates the Job Corps to specifically reach out to young adults to provide vocational training and Volunteers in Service to America(VISTA) as a domestic version of the Peace Corps

   4. Food Stamp Act- 1964- increased funding for the programs and expanded eligibility while also preventing racial discrimination in distribution

   5. Urban Mass Transportation Act- 1964- provides significant funding for states and localities to improve or construct new public transportation.

   6. Project Head Start- 1965 - increased funding for programs aimed at addressing the child development needs of preschoolers in disadvantaged areas, both urban and rural.

   7. Elementary and Secondary Education Act- 1965- drastically increases federal funding for schools across the country in order to address both racial and wealth-based achievement gaps

   8. Higher Education Act- 1965- Increases federal funding for colleges in order to increase ability of colleges to provide financial assistance to lower-income students.

   9. Service Contract Act-1965- expands the types of employment eligible for minimum-wage protections as well as increasing the federal minimum wage.

   10. Social Security Act of 1965- created Medicare  and Medicaid in order to provide greater health coverage and access to the elderly and financially disadvantaged.  Also increases payments to Social Security recipients.

   11. Voting Rights Act of 1965- prohibits racial discrimination in voting.  Required districts with a history of voter discrimination to submit for approval any changes to voting laws.  Doubled African-American voter participation within 2 years and increased the number of African American state legislators in former Confederate states from 3 to 176 by the end of the decade.  Seen as one of the most effective pieces of legislation in American history.  Ultimately has its effectiveness limited by Shelby County v. Holder in 2013, since apparently racism was no longer a problem during the Obama administration.

   12. Immigration and NAtionality Act of 1965- abolishes quota system created during the 1920s and allows for more family and skill-based immgiration to the United States. 

   13. Public Broadcasting Act of 1967- Creates Corporation for Public Broadcasting, Public Broadcasting System (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR) to encourage diversity and further non-commercial broadcasting.

   14. Civil Rights Act of 1968- provides for federal enforcement of discrimination in housing in the wake of the urban uprisings after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.  Also applied the Bill of Rights to Native American tribes

5. Richard Nixon, REPUBLICAN (1969-1974)

   1. Nixon Doctrine- 1969- United States will assist allies in their defense but would draw down their military involvement in these conflicts, i.e. Vietnamization

   2. Philadelphia Plan- 1969- required government contractors to hire minority workers.

   3. Occupational Safety & Health Act- 1970- creates OSHA in order to protect safe and healthy working conditions throughout the United States.  Is effective at improving worker safety and reducing workplace death and injury.  

   4. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks(SALT I) -1972- provides for the freezing of the current number of ballistic missiles and only allows for further construction if other missiles are dismantled.  Representative of the detente existing between the US & USSR in the 1970s

   5. Paris Peace Accords- 1973- effectively ends direct US involvement in the Vietnam War, but some secret bombing campaigns continue through the fall of Saigon in 1975

6. Gerald Ford, REPUBLICAN (1974-1977) TWO ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATIONS!

7. Jimmy Carter, DEMOCRAT (1977-1981) STILL ALIVE TODAY

PERIOD 9: 1980- Present

1. Ronald Reagan, REPUBLICAN (1981-1989) SURVIVED TWO ASSASSINATION ATTEMPTS

   1. Economic Recovery Tax Act- 1981- begins drastic reduction of top marginal tax rates throughout the 1980s

   2. Reagan Doctrine- 1985- Committed the United States to provide military support and other aid to all those opposing Communism around the world.  Drastically increases military budget and officially ends the period of detente.

   3. Civil Rights Restoration Act- 1987- Required recipients of federal funds to comply with all federal regulations regarding civil rights.  Vetoed by Reagan but the veto was overridden by Congress

2. George H.W. Bush, REPUBLICAN (1989-1993)

   1. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)- 1991- Reduction in nuclear warheads between the US & USSR.  Both sides still have tens of thousands of nuclear weapons

3. Bill Clinton, DEMOCRAT (1993-2001)

   1. Contract with America-1994- passed by Republicans after retaking both houses of Congress during the midterm elections of 1994, these laws reduced welfare funding, increased funding for police, provided for stricter sentencing requirements, and reduce overall taxation

4. George W. Bush, REPUBLICAN (2001-2009) DUCKED THE SHOE!

5. Barack Obama, DEMOCRAT(2009-2017)

6. GIANT BLACK HOLE

7. Joe Biden, DEMOCRAT (2021-????)