The ‘Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258)

Abbasid Revolution

• The Abbasid Dynasty came after the fall of the Umayyads because the Umayyads were socially and economically discriminating against non-Arab Muslims.

• The Abbasids were able to defeat the Umayyads because of support from Shia Muslims (they opposed the Umayyads) and because of effective military strategies like mobilization.

• The Battle of Zab (750) marked the end of the Umayyads.

• The Abbasid Caliphate established its capital in Baghdad, shifting power from Syria to Iraq.

First Century of Abbasid Rule

• Political: It was a centralized bureacratic state that used Persian administrative practices and titles. They also expanded their territory and influence.

• Social: Greater integration of non-Arab Muslims; Baghdad became an urban center that became an intellectual hub; The arts and sciences were flourishing with many diverse scholars collaborating.

• Economic: Many prosperous trade routes (Ex. Trans-Saharan trade route); spread of new crops and agricultural techniques across the empire; created a currency system with credit and banking practices.

• Religious: Promoted Sunni Islam as the state religion; the Ulama (Islamic Scholars) studied at madrasas (religious schools) to ensure uniformity in religious practices and to interpret Sharia law; growth in Islamic theology.

• A lot of Sasanian Heritage influenced Islamic civilization, like court culture, architecture, science, and literature (helping the Golden Age of Islam).

Important People

Al-Mansur

• Established the city of Baghdad, which was the largest urban area and contained the House of Wisdom, where many scientists and philosophers gathered together and advanced in their sciences.

• Strengthened administrative and financial structures of the caliphate.

Harun al-Rashid

• Established the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) and ruled during the peak of the Golden Age, where he expanded trade and diplomatic relations.

Al-Ma'mun

• Faced the Fourth Fitna (civil war) and opposition from traditionalist scholars.

• Developed the Mu'tazilite School of Thought

Golden Age of Islam

• Advances in mathematics (Ex. Al-Khwarizmi), astronomy (Ex. made the astrolabe), chemistry, and medicine (Ex. Ibn Sina).

• Translated Greek and Persian works to preserve classical knowledge, resulting in flourishing literature (paper-making from China also helped this).

Decline of the Empire

• Loss of central control because the empire was too big, also corruption and economic difficulties weakened central control.

• Because of weak central power, independent dynasties (Ex. Buyids, Seljuks) started to control different regions resulting in internal conflicts.

• Divisions between Sunni and Shia Muslims.

• Finally ended when the Mongols invaded and destroyed Baghdad (along with the House of Wisdom).

The Fatimids (909-1171)

Foundation of the Dynasty

• Political Factors: Came from Ismaili Shia sect where they claimed descent from Fatimah, daughter of Prophet Muhammad. Established in North Africa.

• Economic Factors: Gained support by promising economic reforms that would redistribute wealth fairer.

• Social Factors: United local groups through discontent with Abbasid rule.

• Religion: Did promote Ismaili Shia Islam but was tolerant of other sects in Islam and other religions like Coptic Christians and Jews.

• Government: Bureaucratic system with different departments. Vizierate (wazir) became a powerful office overseeing administration.

• Supported Learning: Made the Dar al-'Ilm (House of Knowledge) in Cairo. Promoted learning in all fields like science, philosophy, and literature.

• The Abbasids in Baghdad, Umayyads in Cordoba, and the Fatimids all claimed the caliphate but the Fatimids proved that it was theirs because of their descent from Prophet Muhammad.

Conquest of Egypt

• Egypt was vulnerable under the Ikhshidid dynasty and was a very lucrative location for control of trade routes and access to the Mediterranean (which was successful).

• Cairo became the new capital and soon became a cultural and intellectual center

Economic Developments

• Trade networks connecting the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean + Improved agriculture with irrigation projects= Cairo and Alexandria became big commercial hubs.

Important People

Al-Mu'izz

• Oversaw conquest of Egypt (also strengthened military structures) and unified Fatimid rule in North Africa.

Al-Hakim

• Had an eccentric and controversial rule that went between tolerance and persecution.

• Established the Dar al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Cairo, promoting education.

• Mysteriously disappeared in 1021, leading to a succession crisis.

Al-Mustansir

• Longest-reigning Fatimid caliph but faced internal dissent and economic challenges, leading to the start of the decline.

The Crusades (1095-1291)

First Crusade (1096–1099)

• Pope Urban II’s call to arms in 1096 because of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I’s plea for help against Seljuk Turks.

• Capture of Jerusalem in 1099 (end of the Crusade).

• Strengthened authority of the Pope and increased hostility between Christians and Muslims.

Second Crusade (1145–1149)

• Response to the fall of the County of Edessa to Muslim forces, overall unsuccessful.

• Impact: Weakened Christian positions in the Holy Land and increased Muslim unity.

Third Crusade (1189–1192)

• Response to the capture of Jerusalem by Salah al-Din (Saladin).

• Recaptured some coastal cities, but failed to retake Jerusalem.

• The Treaty of Jaffa allowed Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem.

Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)

• Aimed to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem via Egypt, but then moved onto Constantinople which was sacked in 1204.

Origins

• Religious Motives: Liberation of Jerusalem and holy places from Muslim control.

• Secular Motives: Opportunity for land, wealth, and titles for European nobles.

• Spiritual Motives: Adventure and social advancement for lower classes.

Holy Places

• Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and other sites associated with Jesus' life.

• Pilgrimage and Preaching: Disrupted by Muslim control.

• Theory and Practice of Jihad: Islamic concept of holy war to defend or expand Muslim territory.

Crusader States

• Jerusalem: established as Latin Kingdom in 1099

• Antioch: became a nation in 1098 after the Siege of Antioch

• Edessa: first Crusader state, made in 1098

• Tripoli: last major Crusader state, made in 1109

Impacts

• Prolonged conflict and destruction in the Middle East, but it stimulated trade and cultural exchanges.

• The Byzantine Empire had strained relations with Western Europe and these crusades led to their overall destruction.

Military Aspects

• Siege warfare, fortified castles, heavy cavalry

• Major Battles: Battle of Hattin and Siege of Acre

• Weapons: Swords, crossbows, siege engines

Reasons for Successes and Failures

Crusader Successes

• Initial surprise and disunity among Muslim forces

• Superior siege technology and heavy cavalry

Crusader Failures

• Lack of supplies and reinforcements; internal divisions

• Strong Muslim resistance and strategic leadership by figures like Saladin

Muslim Successes

• Unity and strong leadership; effective use of Jihad

• Better knowledge of local terrain and logistics

Muslim Failures

• Initial disunity; occasional underestimation of Crusader capabilities

Important People

• Godfrey de Bouillon= Led the First Crusade; first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

• Richard I of England= Led the Third Crusade; known for his battles with Saladin

• Nur al-Din= Muslim leader; unified Muslim forces in Syria; precursor to Saladin

• Salah al-Din (Saladin)= Recaptured Jerusalem in 1187; known for his chivalry and leadership

• Baibars= Mamluk sultan; key in defeating the Crusaders and consolidating Muslim control

The Ottomans (1281-1566)

Rise of the Ottomans

• Ottoman I founded the Ottoman dynasty in Anatolia in 1299.

• Empire expanded by exploiting the declining Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and the Byzantine Empire.

• Key victories in the Balkans, such as the Battle of Kosovo and the Battle of Nicopolis, gave the Ottomans control.

Impact of the Ottomans on Europe and Muslim Lands

• Ottomans threatened Europe, leading to conflict, disrupting trade routes, and prompting European exploration.

• Muslim Lands provided a unifying force against the fragmentation of the post-Abbasid Caliphate and became a cultural and religious center for Sunni Islam.

  • The Safavids arose in Persia as a powerful Shia dynasty under Shah Ismail I, which the Ottomans defeated in the Battle of Chaldiran, escalating regional tensions (also because of sectarian divide (Sunni Ottomans vs. Shia Safavids)).

  • Built architectural achievements such as mosques and promoted the arts, literature, and sciences.

Ottoman Expansion

• Expanded because of wealth, territorial control, and consolidation of Islamic lands.

• It ended up unifying diverse Islamic regions and enhanced trade and cultural exchanges because of the military and administrative nature of the Ottomans.

Conquests

• Captured Constantinople, which ended the weak Byzantine Empire, renamed it Istanbul which became a cultural and political capital and enhanced control over the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea regions.

• Conquered Syria (1516) and Egypt (1517) under Selim I.

• Overthrew the Mamluks, integrating key economic regions into the empire.

• Impacts: enhanced Ottoman control over major trade routes, established Ottoman dominance in the Islamic world.

Ottoman Systems

• Military: professional army with elite Janissary corps; had gunpowder weapons and artillery.

• Administrative: centralized bureaucracy with efficient tax collection and legal systems; Millet system allowed religious communities self-governance.

Important People

• Mehmet II (1451–1481): Captured Constantinople and expanded the empire into the Balkans and Anatolia. Also, supported cultural and architectural development in Istanbul.

• Selim I (1512–1520): Conquered Mamluk Sultanate; added Egypt, Syria, Hejaz, and established Ottoman control over Mecca and Medina.

• Sultan the Magnificent (1520–1566): Presided over political, military, and cultural power; expanded empire into Europe, Middle East, and North Africa.

African States and Empires (800-1600)

Trade Routes

Trans-Saharan Trade

• Connected West Africa to North Africa and Europe, controlled by Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

• Wealth from trade gave strength to empires, but the decline of empires led to the loss of trade dominance.

Indian Ocean Trade

• Traded slaves, ivory, spices, and textiles; also traded cultures (Islam spread to East and West Africa from North Africa; Portuguese missionaries spread Catholicism and established Kongo as a Christian Kingdom) and allowed Swahili city-states to rise.

Ghana Empire (830-1235)

Overview

• Rose from trade wealth (in gold and salt) and controlled trans-Saharan trade routes.

• Declined with Almoravid invasions and internal conflict, and the shift of trade routes.

Political, Social, and Economic Systems

• Political: Centralized monarchy with a king (Ghana) and governors managing regions.

• Social: Pyramid society with a ruling class, merchants, and commoners.

• Economy: Affected by agriculture, trade, and tribute.

Almoravid Jihad Movement

• Movement was to purify Islam and control trade routes, but led to the empire's decline.

Mali Empire (1230–1600)

Overview

• Founded by Sundiata Keita because of control over trade routes.

• Decline caused internal and external conflict, loss of trade route control.

Political, Social, and Economic Systems

• Political: Centralized government with regional governors.

• Social: Hierarchical society with class distinctions.

• Economy: Promoted agriculture, trade, and gold mining (control over gold-producing areas).

• Military: Strong military, and vast control of territories.

• Religion: Islam was state religion, promoted by rulers like Mansa Musa, which helped make relations and cultural exchanges with other Islamic states.

Kingdom of Kongo

• Political: Centralized monarchy with a king, called Manikongo, and provincial governors.

• Social: Hierarchical society with nobles, commoners, and slaves.

• Economy: Based on agriculture, trade (notably with the Portuguese, trading slaves, ivory, and other goods), and tribute.

Swahili City-States

• City states like Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar rose due to the Indian Ocean trade

  • Traded in gold, ivory, slaves, and exotic goods with Arabia, India, and China

• Swahili language and culture was a result of blending of African, Arab, Persian, and Indian influences because of trade routes.

Pre-colonial African states (1800-1900)

Notable Leaders

Shaka

• Centralized and expanded the Zulu kingdom through conquest, using military innovations like the (short stabbing spear) and impi (large, organized regiments).

• Mfecane (or Difaqane) was a period of political disruption and migration in southern Africa during the 1820s and 30s.

  • Caused by resource competition, European pressure, and internal Zulu expansion

  • Resulted in massive displacement and the creation/consolidating of states

Moshoeshoe

• Established Kingdom of Lesotho through alliances (united fragmented Sotho groups, diplomacy (helped maintain independence with settlers), and defense.

Usman Dan Fodio

• Established the Sokoto Caliphate by launching jihad (religious and social reform movement) against corrupt Hausa states.

• Promoted Islamic education, law, and culture which impacted trade and politics.

Nana of Itsekiri

• From Itsekiri. Controlled trade in the Niger Delta by trading palm oil with Europeans, building influence with his wealth.

Jaja of Opobo

• From Opobo. Was a former slave who became a powerful palm oil trader, then founded Opobo (saved it from British colonial rule).

Ethiopian Unification and Expansion

• Tewodros II (ruled 1855-1868): Started to unify Ethiopia with centralized administration, but had internal and external threats, which led to his downfall.

• Yohannes IV (ruled 1872-1889): Continued to expand and unify Ethiopia, fighting against Egyptian and Mahdist invaders.

• Menelik II (ruled 1889-1913): Successfully expanded Ethiopia (notably the Battle of Adwa in 1896 against Italy) and modernized the military and infrastructure.

Mahdist State

• Started by the Mahdist revolt, led by Muhammad Ahmad who said he was the Mahdi (guided one) in 1881.

• Established a theocratic state (priests are the rulers) after capturing Khartoum in 1885, but were defeated by British-Egyptian forces in 1898.

Slave Trade in Africa and the Middle East (1500-1900)

Causes of the Atlantic Slave Trade

• New technological advancements (shipbuilding, navigation) that helped long-distance voyages and the growth of European maritime commercial empires (Spain, Portugal, England, France, Netherlands).

• High demand for cheap labor in plantations because of the demand of labor intensive crops (sugar, tobacco, and cotton) from the Americas.

• African Rulers already had slavery in their kingdoms (for domestic, agricultural, and military purposes) so they traded slaves for European goods like weapons.

  • Many inter-tribal conflicts led to more captives that became slaves.

Causes of the East African Slave Trade from late 18th Century

• Existing slave trade between Arabia and the Swahili Coast made it easier to move from interior markets to coastal markets.

• The expansion of the Sultanate of Oman into East Africa strengthened the slave trade, making Zanzibar a major slave trading city.

• The Atlantic slave trade was banned by Europeans and Americans, so slaves were needed from other regions in Africa, and needed for plantations in the Indian Ocean islands and Middle East.

Impact of Slave Trade

• Social: Depopulated (mainly of men) and disrupted African society.

• Economic: Dependence on slave trade hurt development in Africa, but slaves helped economic activities in Middle East (agriculture and domestic work).

• Notable People: Tippu Tip (East African trader), John Hawkins (English slave trader), and African rulers like King Ghezo of Dahomey. Traders, merchants, and leaders played crucial roles in the trade.

Decline of the Atlantic Slave Trade

• Industrialization reduced reliance on slave labor.

• Abolitionist movement in Europe and Americas showed moral/ethical issues of slavery

  • Key Figures: William Wilberforce, Olaudah Equiano, and Harriet Tubman

• Shifted focus to legitimate trade goods like palm oil, cocoa, and rubber, and African economies started to export natural resources and agricultural products, not slaves.

Decline of the East African Slave Trade

• Missionaries advocated for the rights and welfare of slaves, and the humanitarian crisis.

• European colonial powers created anti-slavery policies in their colonies, with military interventions and treaties.

• Slavery declined in the Ottoman Empire because of modernization, reforms, and legal and social change.

Anti-Slavery Acts in the 19th Century

• 1807 Slave Trade Act (Britain): Banned British transatlantic slave trade, enforced by the Navy.

• 1833 Abolition of Slavery Act (Britain): Abolished slavery in Britain, freeing slaves and paid compensation to slave owners.

• 1885 Berlin Act: Came from the Berlin Conference, established control over territories while suppressing slavery.

European Imperialism and the Partition of Africa (1850-1900)

Growth of European activity in Africa

• Expanded European influence in North Africa due to weakening Ottoman control.

• Wanted new sources for raw materials and new markets.

• Missionaries wanted to spread Christianity and European values.

• Explorers mapped unknown regions, like David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley.

Causes of Colonization

Economic

• Economic depressions and resource competition in Europe led to search for new markets.

• African resources (gold, diamonds, rubber, and palm oil) were highly coveted.

• Industrialized Europe sought new markets for manufactured goods.

• Chartered companies like the British East Africa Company and Royal Niger Company facilitated colonization.

Strategic

• Control of strategic locations in Africa ensured safe sea passage to Asia.

• British occupation of Egypt (1882) secured control of the Suez Canal and South Africa's dominance over the Cape Sea Route.

• National Rivalry: France and Germany intensified colonial establishment to maintain strategic balance.

• Europeans had a “civilizing mission” to bring Christianity and progress to Africa, and abolitionists also thought of colonization as a way to prevent the slave trade.

African Background to Partition

• Had less advanced military, technological, and administrative structures.

• Political and cultural disunity hindered unified resistance.

• Collaboration with Europeans for strategic or economic benefits.

German Annexation

• Late entry into the imperial race prompted aggressive annexation and had an effective use of treaties and military expeditions.

• Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885): Regulated European colonization and trade, established the principle of effective occupation, and promoted an orderly partition to reduce conflict among European nations.

Important People in the Congo Region

• King Leopold II of Belgium: Controlled Congo Free State for its resources (rubber and ivory) but also brutally exploited the Congolese people.

• Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza: Made French control over parts of the Congo and secured French claims against Belgian expansion.

Response to European Imperialism (1870-1920)

Reasons for Resistance

• Desire for sovereignty and cultural identity.

• Harsh policies and repression fueled resistance.

• Centralized, organized systems facilitate coordinated resistance.

• Strong, disciplined military forces with modern weapons to increase resistance capacity.

Ethiopian resistance under Menelik II

• Modernized military with firearms and established strategic alliances with European powers.

• Battle of Adwa (1896) ensured Ethiopian sovereignty.

Mandinka Resistance to French Rule

• Success: Strong leadership under Samori Toure and effective guerrilla warfare.

• Failure: Superior French military technology and logistical challenges.

Herero and Nama Resistance in Namibia

• Failure: Brutal German military tactics (concentration camps), severe reprisals and genocidal policies, and lack of resources like weapons.

Cetshwayo and the Conquest and Destruction of the Zulu Kingdom

• Initial success at Battle of Isandlwana (1879) but British reinforcements and superior firepower led to defeats.

• King Cetshwayo's capture marked the end of the Zulu Kingdom's independence.

The Asante Wars (1873, 1896, 1900)

• Asante resistance: due to independence and trade control, with a strong centralized political structure under Asantehene.

• British intervention: for control of the gold-rich region and utilized superior military technology and strategic alliances.

Reasons for Collaboration with Colonial Powers

• Pragmatism: Realistic assessment of power balance and resistance chances

• Social, Political, and Economic Gains: Protection, internal stability, economic benefits, and political power.

• Some favorable terms are offered and sometimes there’s a lack of alternatives.

Important Collaborators

• Lewanika of Barotseland: Signed treaties with British South Africa Company and maintained autonomy and political stability.

• Khama III of Bechuanaland: Collaborated with the British to protect people, and promoted Christianity and modern education.

Buganda Resistance and Collaboration

• Kabaka Mwanga resisted British influence, faced internal dissent, and external pressure; deposed and exiled because of this.

• Apollo Kagwa collaborated with the British, ensuring political stability and facilitating integration.

Africa under Colonialism (1890-1980)

British rule in Kenya

• Established settler economy with European settlers.

• Implemented racial segregation policies, limiting African political participation.

• Economic and social development: cash crop agriculture, infrastructure improvements.

• Addressed social disparities between Europeans, Asians, and Africans.

Rule in Tanganyika (1918-1961)

• German rule: Harsh administration, forced labor, taxation; Maji Maji Rebellion (1905-1907) suppressed brutally.

• British rule (1919-1961): Mandate under League of Nations, later UN trust territory; economic development focused on agriculture; gradual political reforms led to 1961 independence.

British Rule in Nyasaland and Northern and Southern Rhodesia

• Settler agriculture and mining industries (copper in Northern Rhodesia) led to racial segregation and limited social services for Africans.

• The Central African Federation was created to create a unified political and economic entity but collapsed (1953-1963) due to African nationalist resistance.

• Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (1965) made in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) to maintain white minority rule but led to international isolation and guerrilla warfare.

Portuguese Rule in Angola/Mozambique

• Economy based on plantation agriculture and mineral extraction.

• Limited social and economic benefits for the African population.

• Armed resistance movements led to protracted independence wars.

Rule in Nigeria

• Had direct and indirect rule: North through traditional rulers, South through centralized administration.

• Administrative Systems: Centralized North structures, South's fragmented societies.

• Economic and Social Development: Cash crop development, infrastructure improvements, and education expansion.

• Were tensions between North, East, West, and ethnic and religious differences.

• Gradual introduction of self-government, 1960 independence with federal structure.

Rule in Gold Coast

• Initially British protectorate, later colony.

• Introduced indirect rule and cash crop development, the cocoa industry became the economic backbone.

• Expanded education and infrastructure.

• Political mobilization led by Kwame Nkrumah and CPP, and achieved independence in 1957, becoming Ghana.

Rule in Senegal

• French direct rule with assimilation policies with 4 communes granted French citizenship rights.

• Emergence of political leaders like Léopold Sédar Senghor and achieved independence in 1960, with Senghor as the first president.

20th-century Movements in Africa

Angola

• Liberation War (1961-1974): Armed struggle against Portuguese colonial rule

• MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola): Marxist-Leninist movement led by Agostinho Neto, supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba.

• UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola): Anti-colonial, anti-MPLA movement led by Jonas Savimbi, supported by US and South Africa

• Independence in 1975: Achieved after Alvor Agreement and Portuguese withdrawal; civil war ensued between MPLA and UNITA.

South-West Africa

• South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO): Led by Sam Nujoma and fought against South African occupation and apartheid, using guerrilla warfare and international diplomacy.

• Independence in 1990: the UN supervised the elections and peace processes, called Namibia and Nujoma became the first president.

Kenya

• Trade Unions mobilized workers and fostered anti-colonial sentiment

  • Tom Mboya played a key role in labor activism

• Mau Mau: Kikuyu-dominated rebellion against British colonial rule and was brutally suppressed, highlighting the need for reform.

• Jomo Kenyatta and Kenya African National Union (KANU) led independence push

• Independence in 1963: Kenyatta became prime minister and president

Gold Coast to Ghana

• Kwame Nkrumah led the Convention People’s Party (CPP) in demanding self-government, with mass mobilization and strikes to pressure the British.

• Nkrumah became prime minister in 1952, leading to 1957 independence.

French West Africa

• Big rise of nationalist movements.

• Léopold Sédar Senghor advocated for autonomy and independence.

• Senegal Independence in 1960: Through negotiations and referendums, Senghor became first president.

Tanganyika

• Tanganyika African National Union (TANU): Founded by Julius Nyerere in 1954, and advocated for independence through peaceful means and mass mobilization.

• Independence on December 9, 1961 from British rule: Nyerere became prime minister and later president.

The Ottoman Empire (1800-1923)

Ottoman Power Challenges in 19th Century

• Greek War of Independence (1821-1829): Greek nationalists sought independence, supported by Britain, France, and Russia; independent Greek state in 1830.

• Muhammad Ali in Egypt: Modernized Egypt's military and economy, expanded into Syria and Arabia, forced to withdraw after European intervention in 1840.

The Eastern Question

• European powers' interest in Ottoman territories for power balance.

• Crimean War (1853-1856): Russian expansionism, protection of Christian minorities; Treaty of Paris that ended the war maintained Ottoman territorial integrity but exposed weaknesses.

• 19th-century Balkans crisis: Nationalist uprisings, Ottoman suppression, European intervention.

Decline of Ottoman power in the Middle East and North Africa

• ​​Egypt's modernization and semi-independence weakened Ottoman control.

• Libya's loss to Italy in 1912.

• French conquest in Algeria, fully colonized by 1847.

• Lebanon's autonomy due to sectarian conflict and European intervention.

Attempts at Internal Reform and Modernizations

• Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876): Aimed to modernize state to resist European pressures; had centralized administration, modernized military, and ensured legal equality; mixed success, faced resistance from conservatives.

• Abdul Hamid II's Reforms (1876-1909): Autocratic rule, suppression of dissent; reform focused on Pan-Islamism.

Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

• Founded in 1889, advocated for modernization and reform.

• Gained power after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908.

• Promoted secularization and modernization through constitution restoration.

Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913)

• The First Balkan War resulted in European territories' loss to Balkan League.

• The Second Balkan War led to internal conflict among Balkan states, with few Ottoman gains.

Ottoman Empire in the First World War

• Entry due to alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, and hoped to regain lost territories and assert power.

• War resulted in defeats, territorial losses, Armenian Genocide, and severe economic and social disruption.

• Mustafa Kemal Ataturk emerged as national leader during the war, and led the Turkish National Movement against occupying forces post-war.

• Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1922 led to the Republic of Turkey in 1923.

War and Change in the Middle East and North Africa (1914-1945)

Allied Diplomacy in the Middle East

• McMahon–Hussein Correspondence (1915-1916): Proposed Arab independence in exchange for revolt against Ottoman Empire.

• Sykes–Picot Agreement (1916): Secret agreement between Britain and France to divide Ottoman territories, contradicted promises made to Arabs.

• Arab Revolt (1916-1918): Led by Sharif Hussein, supported by T.E. Lawrence, aimed to create an independent Arab state.

• Balfour Declaration (1917): Supported establishment of "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

Paris Peace Treaties Impact

• Redrew boundaries, created new states and mandates.

• Mandate System: Divided territories into mandates under League of Nations, administered by Britain and France.

• British mandates in Iraq and Transjordan, French mandates in Syria and Lebanon.

Egypt after the First World War

• Growing anti-colonial sentiment.

• Emergence of Wafd Party demanding independence.

• Declaration of Independence (1922) granted nominal independence but retained defense and foreign affairs.

• British political and military influence continued, Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936) limited sovereignty.

Palestine Mandate

• Tensions between Jewish immigrants and the Arab population.

• Development of Jewish agricultural settlements (kibbutzim) and cities→rise in land purchases and immigration, especially in the 1930s→conflicts over land and employment.

• British Responses: White Papers (1930, 1939) and Peel Commission (1937) to limit Jewish immigration and land purchases.

Ataturk’s Turkish Republic

• Aimed for secularization and modernization: Introduced legal, educational reforms, Latin alphabet, and Western dress; Emancipated women and promoted industrialization.

• Abolished Sultanate and Caliphate.

• Success: established a stable, secular republic.

• Failures: resistance from traditionalists and authoritarian practices.

Iran

• Modernization policies by Reza Shah Pahlavi: infrastructure development, industrialization, power centralization.

• Religious efforts: changes in education and law.

• Western Influences: increased interaction with the UK and USSR.

• Economic concessions to foreign companies, especially oil.

• Mixed success: infrastructure and military reforms, authoritarian rule, dissent suppression.

Saudi Arabia

• Unification under Ibn Saud in 1932.

• Oil discovery in 1938 transformed the economy.

• Close ties with the US for oil extraction and political support.

• Limited modernization focused on infrastructure and traditional social structure.

Africa, International organizations, and the International Community (20th century)

Abyssinian Crisis (1934–1936)

• Causes: Italy's ambition to build an empire and avenge First Italo-Ethiopian War defeat and fascist leader Benito Mussolini’s desire to distract from domestic issues.

• Consequences: League of Nations’ ineffective sanctions enforcement.

• Impact: Italy's conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and establishment of Italian East Africa contributed to the League's irrelevance and World War II onset.

Organization of African Unity (OAU) and African Union (AU)

Objectives

• OAU: Promote unity and solidarity among African states, support independence movements, and ensure sovereignty and territorial integrity.

• AU: Build on OAU’s objectives with added focus on economic integration, peace, and security.

Structure

• OAU: Assembly of Heads of State and Gov., Council of Ministers, General Secretariat

• AU: Assembly, Executive Council, Peace and Security Council, AU Commission

Successes

• OAU: Support for decolonization and anti-apartheid movements

• AU: Interventions in conflicts, promotion of economic development

Failures

• OAU: Ineffective conflict resolution, couldn’t stop coups and human rights abuses

• AU: Challenges in financing, implementation of policies, and enforcement of decisions

Regional Organizations

• East African Community (EAC) (1967–1977): Promoted economic cooperation and integration, but ended because of political disagreements and economic disparities.

• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Resolved conflicts and had good economic integration, but had limited economic progress, internal conflicts, and political instability.

• Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC)/Southern African Development Community (SADC): Promoted regional cooperation, economic development projects, but ineffectively addressed political crises and socio-economic disparities.

The UN

UN's Role in Africa

• Congo: Successful UN peacekeeping operation stabilized region

• Mozambique: UN involvement in peace negotiations post-civil war

• Somalia: Limited humanitarian relief efforts

• Rwanda: UN failure to prevent 1994 genocide

• Impact: Led to criticism of UN peacekeeping and international response mechanisms

UN Specialized Agencies Impact

• WHO: Eradication of smallpox, malaria, HIV/AIDS, Ebola

• UNESCO: Promotion of education, cultural heritage preservation, literacy programs in Africa

Cold War Impact on Africa

• Angola: Exacerbated civil war due to US and Soviet involvement; support for MPLA and UNITA led to prolonged conflict

• Ethiopia: US-Soviet rivalry influenced regime changes; support for Derg military regime led to human rights abuses

Developments in South Africa (1880-1994)

Discovery of Diamonds and Gold

• Increased British control over South Africa and competition between British and Boer settlers

• Influx of European immigrants and laborers, leading to the displacement and exploitation of African populations

• Rapid economic growth, urbanization, infrastructure development, and economic segregation

South African War (1899-1902)

• Economic Causes: Control over gold and diamond resources

• Political Causes: British imperial ambitions vs Boer independence

• Strategic Causes: British desire for regional dominance

• Course: Initial Boer successes followed by British counter-offensives

• Consequences: Annexed Boer republics, devastation of Boer and African communities

• Treaty of Vereeniging (1902): Boers conceded defeat but retained language and property rights

• Act of Union (1909): Unification of British colonies and Boer republics

Smuts and Hertzog's Policies (1910-1948)

• Implemented racial segregation and disenfranchised black South Africans

• Protests led to African nationalist movements and labor strikes

• Formated the African National Congress in 1912

Apartheid

• National Party: 1948 election victory due to white fears of black political power and economic competition, and had nationalist rhetoric and promises to preserve white supremacy

• Apartheid: institutionalized racial segregation enforced through laws like Population Registration Act and Group Areas Act

  • Grand Apartheid: Bantustan system, separate homelands for black ethnic groups, and entrenched economic and social divisions

Resistance to Apartheid

• Increased militancy and advocacy for armed struggle

• African National Congress (ANC): Shift from passive resistance to armed struggle after Sharpeville Massacre

• Sharpeville Massacre: Police killed 69 peaceful protesters, leading to ANC's adoption of armed resistance

• Steve Biko and Black Consciousness Movement: Emphasized black pride and psychological liberation, Biko's death galvanized resistance

• Soweto Massacre: Brutal police response to student protests against Afrikaans-medium education

• International opposition to apartheid: Economic boycott weakened South Africa's economy, increased diplomatic and political pressure on apartheid regime

End of Apartheid

• De Klerk's Ban on ANC: Legalized ANC and anti-apartheid organizations in 1990

• Nelson Mandela's Release: Played key role in ending apartheid negotiations

• CODESA: Multi-party negotiations for a new democratic constitution in 1991

• 1994 Elections: ANC won majority, Mandela became first black president

Social and Cultural Developments in Africa in the 19th-20th Centuries

The Spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa

Promoting Factors

• Islam: Trans-Saharan trade and Sufi brotherhoods

• Christianity: European colonization and establishment of schools and medical facilities

Inhibiting Factors

• Islam: Resistance from traditional African religions and geographical barriers

• Christianity: Anti-colonial sentiment and cultural resistance to Western values

African Independent Churches Movement

• Created and grew due to dissatisfaction with European missionary control and racism

• Desire for African-incorporated religious practices

• Inspired by leaders like Simon Kimbangu and Isaiah Shembe

• Rapid growth in early 20th century, especially in southern and central Africa

Changing Values

• Social: Western education and legal systems altered traditional structures; urbanization led to shifts in family dynamics and social roles

• Culture: Post-Colonial Era saw revival of African cultural practices; global culture influenced by media and technology

Role of Women

• 19th Century: Traditional roles in agriculture, domestic work, trade

• 20th Century: Increased formal education and professional sectors

• Active roles in nationalist movements and post-independence politics

• Advocacy for women's rights and gender equality

Technological Developments

• Communication: Telegraph, radio, and television transformed spread of information

• Healthcare: Medical technology improved mortality rates and life expectancy

• Diseases: Introduction of vaccinations and treatments

Immigration and Emigration

• Immigration: Labour migration for mining, agriculture, construction; influenced local cultures and economies

• Emigration: African diaspora in Europe, Americas, Middle East; economic benefits and cultural exchange

Developments in the arts and education

Art

• Colonial Era: Suppression and appropriation of African art, European styles introduced; art used as propaganda tool

• Post-Colonial Era: Fusion of traditional and contemporary African art; African literature, music, film grew as expressions of identity; artists like Chinua Achebe, Fela Kuti, Ousmane Sembène gained international recognition

Education

• Colonial Education: Focused on elite formation, limited access, discrimination

• Post-Independence Education: Expanded access, emphasis on African history, languages, cultures

  • Challenges: Funding, infrastructure, quality

Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945-2000)

Origins of Israel

• Post-WWII British Mandate struggled with increasing Jewish immigration and Arab resistance

• UN Partition Plan (1947) proposed separate Jewish and Arab states

• 1948-1949 War Causes: Declaration of Israel, immediate Arab invasion

• Effects of the War: Israeli victory, territorial expansion, Palestinian refugee crisis

Arab-Israeli Conflicts

• Suez Crisis (1956): Caused by nationalization of Suez Canal by Nasser, Israel, Britain, and France; political victory for Nasser

• Six Day War (1967): Caused by rising tensions and Egyptian blockade of Israeli shipping; led to Israeli capture of Sinai, Golan Heights, West Bank, Gaza Strip

• 1973 War (Yom Kippur War): Surprise attack by Egypt and Syria to reclaim lost territories; stalemate with peace with Camp David Accords

Effects of Conflicts

• Continued Israeli control, settlement expansion in occupied territories

• Intifadas: Palestinian uprisings in occupied territories

• PLO: Emergence as a major political and militant force

• Peacemaking Attempts: Oslo Accords (1993), Camp David Summit (2000)

Post-War Egypt

Nasser (1952-1970)

• Political: Overthrew monarchy, established republic

• Economic: Land reforms, nationalization of industries

• Social: Promotion of education, women's rights

• Pan-Arabism: Attempt to unify Arab states; creation of UAR (1958-1961) with Syria

Sadat (1970-1981)

• Political: Shifted towards US, signed Camp David Accords with Israel

• Economic: Infitah (open-door policy), partial privatization

Mubarak (1981-2011)

• Political: Continued peace with Israel, faced internal opposition

• Economic and Social: Mixed economic reforms, limited political freedoms

Post-War Iran

• Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's modernization efforts influenced by US ties

• White Revolution led to land reforms, women's rights, and infrastructure development

• 1979 Revolution caused discontent, economic issues, and religious opposition

• Post-Revolution Iran saw theocratic rule and suppression of opposition

• Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) resulted in devastating conflict and economic toll

Lebanon

• Civil Wars: Caused by sectarian tensions and Palestinian refugee presence; resulted in destruction and displacement of populations.

• Israeli invasions and Syrian occupation led to efforts post-Taif Agreement (1989) and ongoing challenges.

• Confessional State: Political power divided among religious groups but with persistent economic, religious, and social issues.

• Militias: Rise of groups like Hezbollah.

• PLO: Major force in Lebanon, contributing to conflict dynamics.

Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005

Causes of Ethnic Conflict, Civil War, and Military Intervention

• Ethnic Tensions: Colonial borders led to diverse ethnic groups within states

• Economic Problems: Poverty, unemployment, and unequal resource distribution fueled conflicts.

• Destabilization by Outside Forces: Foreign interventions exacerbated internal conflicts

• Inefficiency of Civilian Governments: Corruption, poor governance, and lack of effective administration led to dissatisfaction.

• Conflicting Political Ideologies: Conflicting ideologies like capitalism vs socialism contributed to internal strife.

• Personal Ambition: Power struggles led to coups and military interventions.

Impact of Ethnic Conflict, Civil War, and Military Intervention

• Military rule often leads to authoritarian regimes, suppression of political freedoms, and human rights abuses.

• Social impact: Population displacement, community breakdown, loss of life.

• Economic impact: Infrastructure destruction, economic disruption, increased poverty.

Social and Economic Challenges in Africa

• High prevalence of diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis.

• Limited education access and high illiteracy rates.

• Widespread poverty due to lack of economic opportunities and poor resource management.

• Frequent famines due to drought, conflict, and inadequate agricultural policies.

• Neo-Colonial economic exploitation.

Establishment of Single-Party States

• Personal ambition: Leaders consolidate power for control.

• Failure of democracy: Initial democratic systems often failed due to lack of experience and infrastructure.

• Need for effective governance: Single-party states ensure stability.

Return to Multi-Party Democracy in 1980s and 1990s

• Successful because of the international pressure for democratic reforms, the economic reforms tied to political reforms, and the growing public demand for political freedoms.

• Failed because of the power structures from established elites and continued instability due to ethnic conflicts and economic challenges.

Economic Growth and Development to 2005

• Political Stability: Improved governance and political stability facilitated growth.

• Multi-Partyism: Return to multi-party democracy encouraged transparency and accountability.

• Leadership: Effective and visionary leaders promoted economic reforms.

• Infrastructure Development: Investments in roads, telecommunications, and energy.

• Investment: Increased foreign direct investment and economic partnerships.

• Economic Reforms: Policies promoting market liberalization, privatization, and economic diversification.