Elizabethan England
Part One: Elizabeth's Court and Parliament
This section explores Elizabeth I's personal rule, her court, and her interactions with Parliament.
Elizabeth I and her court
Background and character of Elizabeth I
Born in 1533, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, she faced accusations of illegitimacy throughout her early life.
Received an exceptional humanist education, making her intelligent, widely read, charismatic, and fluent in several languages (Latin, Greek, French, Italian).
Demonstrated political astuteness, determination, and a remarkable ability to use rhetoric.
Prioritized maintaining stability and power, often employing a 'via media' (middle way) approach in both politics and religion.
Court life, including patronage
The court was the undisputed center of political power, social life, and culture, constantly moving with the Queen.
Elizabeth meticulously used patronage (granting titles, offices, monopolies, or wealth) to reward loyalty, control ambitious nobles, and build a powerful network of support.
Key courtiers fiercely competed for her favor, leading to factions and rivalries, which Elizabeth skillfully exploited to maintain control.
Key ministers
William Cecil (Lord Burghley): Her chief advisor and Lord High Treasurer. Known for his foresight, administrative skill, cautious diplomacy, and meticulous attention to state finances.
Francis Walsingham: Her Principal Secretary and spymaster. Developed an extensive network of spies and informants, crucial for uncovering Catholic plots.
Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester): A childhood friend and personal favorite, his influence was significant, especially in military matters.
The difficulties of a female ruler
Challenged by patriarchal society, many questioned a woman's ability to rule, fearing weakness or manipulation by a husband.
Concerns that marriage would lead to a loss of sovereignty or undermine national independence.
Elizabeth turned her gender into a strength, presenting herself as a 'Virgin Queen' married to her country, maintaining her absolute authority.
Relations with Parliament
Parliament (House of Lords and House of Commons) primarily functioned to approve taxation and pass laws.
Elizabeth often clashed with Parliament over issues like marriage, succession, and freedom of speech, asserting her royal prerogative (inherent right as monarch to make decisions on matters of state).
Managed Parliament skillfully, using charm, flattery, and firmness, often adjourning sessions to prevent direct confrontations.
The problem of marriage and the succession
Marriage was expected to provide a male heir and forge powerful international alliances.
Elizabeth famously remained unmarried, using her 'marriageability' as a crucial diplomatic tool.
Her refusal to name an heir created the succession problem, causing national anxiety, fueling plots, and fears of civil war upon her death.
The strength of Elizabeth’s authority at the end of her reign, including Essex’s rebellion in 1601
Elizabeth's authority was largely strong, but in her later years (1590s), costly warfare, bad harvests, and court factionalism led to discontent.
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, a former favorite, led a failed rebellion in 1601 due to loss of patronage and political ambition.
The rebellion was swiftly crushed, Essex executed, reinforcing Elizabeth's power despite highlighting underlying frustrations.
Part Two: Life in Elizabethan Times
This section explores the social, economic, and cultural aspects of daily life during Elizabeth's reign.
A ‘Golden Age’
Often used to describe the era in retrospect, referring to a period of relative peace, prosperity, and cultural flourishing.
This 'golden age' was primarily experienced by the wealthy elite, while the majority faced hardships.
Living standards and fashions
Wealthy: Enjoyed luxury with elaborate clothing (silk, velvet), grand manor houses, and rich diets. Fashion was a powerful indicator of social status.
Poor: Life was harsh, characterized by subsistence living, poor housing, and susceptibility to disease and famine.
Sumptuary laws: Legally dictated what different social classes could wear, reinforcing strict social hierarchy.
Growing prosperity and the rise of the gentry
Increased overseas trade, exploration, and agricultural improvements (e.g., enclosure) led to greater wealth for some.
The gentry (landowning class below the nobility) grew significantly in wealth and influence, building impressive country houses and playing a crucial role in local governance.
The Elizabethan theatre and its achievements
An extraordinary flourishing of drama, with playwrights like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson.
Public playhouses (e.g., The Globe, The Rose) offered popular entertainment to all social classes.
Plays explored universal themes, historical narratives, and emerging national identity.
Attitudes to the theatre
While popular, it faced opposition from Puritans who viewed it as immoral and encouraging idleness, vice, and disorder.
City authorities also worried about crowds breeding crime, disorder, and the spread of disease (like the plague).
The poor
Reasons for the increase in poverty
Rapid population growth outstripped resources.
High inflation eroded purchasing power.
Enclosure (fencing off common land) deprived rural poor of vital resources.
Bad harvests led to food shortages and soaring prices.
Dissolution of monasteries removed a traditional source of charity.
Demobilized soldiers and vagrants exacerbated the problem.
Attitudes and responses to poverty
Categorized as 'deserving poor' (incapable of work) and 'undeserving poor' or 'sturdy beggars' (able-bodied but unwilling to work).
Attitudes ranged from Christian charity to fear and harsh punishment for vagrants.
The reasons for government action and the seriousness of the problem
Poverty was a grave social and economic threat, linked to increased crime, social unrest, and potential rebellion.
The government recognized the need for action to maintain order and prevent revolt.
Government action
The landmark Poor Laws (1597 and 1601) established a comprehensive national system for poor relief.
Funded by local taxation (poor rates) levied on property owners.
Aimed to provide relief for the deserving poor (through almshouses or 'outdoor relief'), offer work to the able-bodied poor, and implement harsh punishments for 'sturdy beggars'.
English sailors
Hawkins and Drake
John Hawkins: Pioneered English slave trade, improved naval shipbuilding and tactics.
Francis Drake: Celebrated privateer, explorer, and naval hero; known for audacious raids on Spanish treasure ships.
Circumnavigation 1577–1580, voyages and trade
Drake's epic circumnavigation, sponsored by Elizabeth, brought immense wealth and boosted English prestige.
English voyages sought new trade routes and resources, challenging Spanish and Portuguese dominance.
The role of Raleigh
Walter Raleigh: Charismatic courtier, explorer, and adventurer.
Promoted English exploration and colonization, notably the attempted colony of Roanoke in North America, though unsuccessful during Elizabeth's reign.
Part Three: Troubles at Home and Abroad
This section examines the major religious and political conflicts, both internal and external, that challenged Elizabeth's reign.
Religious matters
The question of religion, English Catholicism and Protestantism
Elizabeth inherited a nation deeply divided by religious upheaval; sought a stable religious settlement to unite the nation.
The Northern Rebellion (1569)
A major Catholic uprising led by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, aiming to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism with Mary, Queen of Scots.
Swiftly crushed by royal forces, leading to severe repression of Catholics.
Elizabeth's excommunication (1570)
Pope Pius V issued the papal bull, Regnans in Excelsis, excommunicating Elizabeth and declaring her illegitimate.
Absolved Catholic subjects of obedience, intensifying the threat from within England and from foreign Catholic powers.
The missionaries
From the 1570s, Catholic priests (seminary priests, Jesuits) arrived secretly from abroad to minister to English Catholics and reconvert Protestants.
Government viewed their presence as treasonous and a direct threat to national security.
Catholic plots and the threat to the Elizabethan settlement
Numerous plots emerged (e.g., Ridolfi, Throckmorton, Babington) aimed at deposing or assassinating Elizabeth and replacing her with Mary, Queen of Scots.
Meticulously uncovered by Walsingham's spy network, confirming fears about Catholic disloyalty.
The nature and ideas of the Puritans and Puritanism
Extreme Protestants who believed the Church of England was not sufficiently reformed.
Sought to 'purify' the church of lingering Catholic practices, advocating for simpler worship and a more moral society.
Challenged Elizabeth's authority through Parliament and pamphlets.
Elizabeth and her government's responses and policies towards religious matters
Primary policy: Elizabethan Religious Settlement (1559), comprising the Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity.
Established a Protestant church with Elizabeth as Supreme Governor, but retained some traditional elements ('middle way').
Tolerated private Catholic practice but cracked down harshly on open dissent, recusancy (refusal to attend Anglican services), and plots, executing many priests.
Suppressed Puritan challenges, emphasizing strict conformity.
Mary Queen of Scots
Background
Catholic Queen of Scotland, direct descendant of Henry VIII's sister, giving her a strong claim to the English throne.
Fled to England in 1568 after being deposed by Scottish Protestant nobility.
Elizabeth and Parliament’s treatment of Mary
Elizabeth kept Mary imprisoned for 19 years, reluctant to execute a fellow monarch.
Parliament repeatedly petitioned for Mary's execution due to the threat she posed.
The challenge posed by Mary
Remained a constant symbol and focal point for Catholic hopes and conspiracies against Elizabeth, attracting both domestic and foreign support.
Plots
Implicated in several major Catholic plots (e.g., Ridolfi, Babington).
Walsingham's spy network intercepted letters providing undeniable evidence of her complicity in the Babington Plot.
Execution and its impact
Tried and found guilty of treason, Mary was executed in 1587.
Removed the most significant domestic threat to Elizabeth's throne.
Provoked outrage from Catholic powers, contributing to Philip II of Spain's decision to launch the Armada.
Conflict with Spain
Reasons
Religious differences (Protestant England vs. Catholic Spain).
English privateering (Drake's raids on Spanish treasure ships and colonies) disrupting Spain's economy.
Spanish control over the Netherlands, feared as a launchpad for invasion.
Elizabeth's support for Dutch rebels fighting Spanish rule.
Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, providing a religious justification for intervention.
Events
Escalation of hostilities, including Drake's 'singeing of the King of Spain's beard' (raid on Cadiz in 1587), delaying Armada preparations.
Philip II meticulously planned a massive invasion force: the Spanish Armada.
Naval warfare, including tactics and technology
English ships: Smaller, faster, more maneuverable, equipped with longer-range cannons (culverins) for devastating broadsides.
Spanish galleons: Larger, designed for close-quarters fighting, aiming to grapple and board enemy vessels.
English tactics favored long-range bombardment over boarding actions.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588)
Philip II launched the 'Invincible Armada' to invade England.
Key events: English fire ships at Calais scattered the Spanish fleet, followed by a running battle in the English Channel.
Severe storms and gales (the 'Protestant Wind') forced the shattered Armada to retreat around Scotland and Ireland, suffering heavy losses.
A monumental propaganda victory for Elizabeth, symbolizing Protestant destiny, though the war continued for years.
Part Four: The Historic Environment of Elizabethan England
This section requires students to study a specific historical site, applying broader historical concepts to a concrete example. This site changes annually and is worth 10\% of the overall course.
Focus areas for studying the specific site:
Location: Where is the site geographically, and what is its significance in local, regional, or national context?
Function: What was its primary purpose during the Elizabethan era (e.g., defensive structure, administrative center, economic hub, theatre, battleground)?
The structure: Architectural features, building materials, size, layout, and how these reflect the period's technology, aesthetics, and needs.
People connected with the site: Significant individuals (designer, owners, inhabitants, event participants) and how their stories connect to broader Elizabethan developments.
Design: Analysis of specific design choices, architectural innovations, and decorative elements, and their implications for the site’s purpose and symbolism.
How the design reflects the culture, values, fashions of the people at the time: Examples include a grand manor house reflecting gentry prosperity or a public theatre showcasing new cultural attitudes.
How important events/developments from the depth study are connected to the site: Direct links between the site and themes from Parts One, Two, and Three (e.g., a manor house in a rebellion, a port linked to voyages, a battle site).
Second Order Concepts:
Students must be able to apply concepts of change, continuity, causation, and/or consequence to the site within its wider historical context.
Representativeness: Understand how the site's features represent broader aspects of Elizabethan England. Examine how it changed from earlier periods and during Elizabeth's reign itself.r.