In Depth Notes on Second Language Acquisition - The Age Factor

Introduction

• Topic: Second Language Acquisition (L2) and the age factor in learning additional languages.

• Instructor: Prof. Dr. Simone Pfenninger, Spring 2025.

• Focus:

  • Why early L2 instruction was introduced in Switzerland and Europe in the 1990s.

  • The debate on how early or late one should start learning an additional language, and whether being younger is beneficial.

Part I: Early L2 Instruction Introduction

• History and Context:

  • Early L2 instruction was promoted as a way to improve language skills as European integration increased.

  • Emphasized importance of multilingual education since the 1990s.

• Switzerland's Language Policy:

  • National language policy updates in response to the multilingual society.

  • The need to prepare future generations for global communication.

Debating Age of L2 Acquisition

Folk Wisdom & Educational Policy

• Common Beliefs:

  1. “A tree must be bent while it is young” → Earlier is better.

  2. Bilingualism leads to improved cognitive skills and is advantageous.

• Evidence Supporting Earlier Learning (Citations):

  • Exposure to a language at a young age leads to better unconscious acquisition.

  • Studies aim to enhance motivation and positive attitudes towards languages in early education (Edelenbos et al. 2006).

Multilingualism and Cognitive Advantages

• Cognitive Benefits:

  • Multilingual individuals can focus better and have enhanced memory skills.

  • Bilingualism can ease learning additional languages (Science Daily, 2011).

• Cultural Contexts:

  • Distinction between ‘prestigious’ multilingualism (elite) vs. ‘plebeian’ multilingualism (general populace) (Blommaert 2011).

Implications of Early vs. Late Learning

Naturalistic vs. Classroom Settings

• Real-World Learning:

  • Children in immersive settings learn faster and exhibit better outcomes than in minimal input settings (Golberg et al., 2008; Bylund et al., 2019).

• Evidence on Age Effects:

  • Studies show older starters can outperform younger ones initially but may not always achieve native-like proficiency later in life (Dörnyei 2007).

Neurobiological Factors in Language Learning

• Cognitive Development:

  • Age impacts neuroplasticity, which declines with age.

  • Influence of L1 on L2 acquisition, especially as a learner matures.

• Critical Period Hypothesis:

  • Explains how specific developmental stages impact learning potential (Birdsong 2006).

Current Research and Gaps

• Questions to Explore:

  1. How does age affect different learner populations?

  2. Role of environmental variables on acquisition success?

  3. Influence of educational systems and beliefs of teachers/parents on early learning?

  4. The effectiveness of informal vs. formal instructional settings for different age groups.

Conclusions & Takeaway Points

• Take-home Messages:

  1. Early language learning is entrenched in cultural assumptions, making it a historical discourse.

  2. Cognitive factors and contextual variables often outweigh the importance of chronological age in L2 acquisition success.

  3. Language experience (quality and quantity) significantly contributes to successful bilingual outcomes, perhaps more than the age at which learning commences (Ortega 2019).