unit 5

5.1 - Introduction to Agriculture

Physical Geography & Climate

• The physical geography and climate of a region significantly influence agricultural practices, determining the types of crops and livestock that can be raised.

• Soil quality is crucial; fertile soils support intensive agriculture, while poor soils may limit agricultural potential.

• Temperature and precipitation patterns dictate growing seasons and crop viability, with certain crops requiring specific climatic conditions.

• Topography affects land use; hilly areas may require terracing, while flat plains are ideal for extensive farming.

Types of Agriculture

• Intensive Agriculture: Involves high labor and resource input per unit of land, maximizing output. Common examples include market gardening, dairy farming, and rice farming.

• Extensive Agriculture: Characterized by low labor and resource input per unit of land, often resulting in larger areas being farmed with less yield per acre. Examples include ranching and shifting cultivation.

• The choice between intensive and extensive agriculture often depends on economic factors, land availability, and market access.

Human Modifications to the Environment

• Irrigation: Techniques such as drip irrigation and center-pivot systems enhance water availability for crops, increasing yields in arid regions.

• Terracing: This method involves creating flat areas on sloped land to prevent soil erosion and maximize arable land.

• Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agricultural purposes can lead to significant biodiversity loss and contribute to climate change.

• Draining Wetlands: While this practice creates more farmland, it also reduces biodiversity and disrupts local ecosystems.

5.2 - Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods

Settlement Types

• Clustered (Nucleated): Characterized by homes and farms located close together, often seen in European rural areas, facilitating community interaction and resource sharing.

• Dispersed Settlements: Farms are spread out over large areas, typical in North America, allowing for extensive land use but potentially isolating communities.

• Linear Settlements: These are arranged along transportation routes such as roads or rivers, optimizing access to trade and resources.

Land Survey Systems

• Metes and Bounds: This system uses natural landmarks to define property boundaries, resulting in irregularly shaped plots, commonly used in the Eastern U.S.

• Long-Lot System: Divides land into long, narrow sections along a river, facilitating access to water resources, prevalent in regions like French Canada and Louisiana.

• Township and Range System: A grid-based system used in the Western U.S. that divides land into square sections, promoting organized land use.

5.3 - Agricultural Origins and Diffusions

First Agricultural Revolution

• The transition from hunter-gatherer societies to sedentary farming occurred over 10,000 years ago, marking the Neolithic Revolution.

• This shift allowed for the establishment of permanent settlements and the development of complex societies.

Hearths of Domestication

• Fertile Crescent (SW Asia): Known for the domestication of wheat, barley, lentils, and olives, this region is often referred to as the cradle of agriculture.

• East Asia: Rice, soybeans, and walnuts were domesticated here, contributing to the region's agricultural diversity.

• Sub-Saharan Africa: Yams, millet, and sorghum were key crops that supported early agricultural societies.

• Mesoamerica: The domestication of corn, beans, and squash formed the basis of agricultural practices in this region.

Columbian Exchange

• The Columbian Exchange facilitated the global movement of crops, livestock, and diseases following Columbus's voyages in 1492.

• New World to Old World: Key exports included maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and cacao, which transformed diets in Europe and beyond.

• Old World to New World: Wheat, rice, sugarcane, and livestock such as horses, cattle, and pigs were introduced, reshaping agricultural practices in the Americas.

5.4 - The Second Agricultural Revolution

Overview and Impact

• Occurring between the 1700s and 1900s, this revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution, leading to significant agricultural advancements.

• Technological innovations such as the steel plow and mechanical reaper greatly increased farming efficiency and productivity.

Technological Innovations

• Steel Plow (John Deere, 1837): Revolutionized soil preparation, allowing farmers to cultivate tougher soils more effectively.

• Mechanical Reaper (Cyrus McCormick, 1831): Enabled faster harvesting of crops, significantly reducing labor time and increasing output.

• Crop Rotation: This practice of alternating crops helped maintain soil fertility and reduce pest populations, enhancing agricultural sustainability.

Enclosure Acts

• The Enclosure Acts privatized communal lands in England, leading to increased agricultural efficiency but also forcing many rural inhabitants to migrate to urban areas for work.

• This shift contributed to urbanization and the growth of cities during the Industrial Revolution.

5.5 - The Green Revolution (Third Agricultural Revolution)

Overview and Innovations

• The Green Revolution, occurring in the 1950s and 1960s, aimed to increase food production globally, particularly in developing countries.

• Key innovations included the development of high-yield varieties (HYVs) of staple crops, which significantly boosted agricultural output.

Environmental and Social Impacts

• The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides increased crop yields but also raised concerns about environmental degradation and health risks.

• Improvements in irrigation allowed for farming in previously arid regions, but overuse of water resources led to sustainability issues.

Successes and Failures

• The Green Revolution successfully reduced famine in Asia and Latin America, improving food security for millions.

• However, its impact was limited in Africa, where many regions faced challenges such as soil degradation and water shortages.

5.6 - Agricultural Production Regions

Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture

• Intensive Agriculture: Characterized by high labor input and small land areas, examples include market gardening and dairy farming, which require close proximity to markets.

• Extensive Agriculture: Involves low labor input over large land areas, such as livestock ranching and grain farming, often found in less densely populated regions.

Commercial vs. Subsistence Farming

• Commercial Farming: Focused on producing food for sale in markets, often involving large-scale agribusiness operations and plantations.

• Subsistence Farming: Primarily for local consumption, including practices like pastoral nomadism and shifting cultivation, which are vital for food security in many communities.

5.7 - Spatial Organization of Agriculture

Agribusiness and Commodity Chains

• Agribusiness: Refers to large-scale commercial farming operations that are often corporately owned, influencing global food systems.

• Commodity Chains: The series of steps involved in the production and distribution of agricultural products, such as coffee and beef, highlighting the interconnectedness of global markets.

Vertical Integration

• Corporations often engage in vertical integration, controlling multiple stages of food production, from farming to processing and distribution, exemplified by companies like Tyson and Monsanto.

• This model can lead to increased efficiency but may also raise concerns about monopolistic practices and the impact on small farmers.

5.8 - Von Thünen Model

Land Use Patterns

• The Von Thünen Model explains agricultural land use patterns based on transportation costs and the perishability of products.

• It proposes concentric rings of land use around a central market, with dairy and market gardening closest to the market, followed by forestry, grains, and ranching.

Modern Changes

• Advances in refrigeration and global trade have altered traditional land use patterns, allowing for the transportation of perishable goods over longer distances.

• The model remains relevant for understanding agricultural economics but must be adapted to contemporary practices.

5.9 - The Global System of Agriculture

Core-Periphery Relationships

• Developed countries often dominate agribusiness, controlling production and distribution, while developing countries primarily supply raw agricultural goods.

• This dynamic can lead to economic disparities and dependency on foreign markets for food security.

Export-Oriented Agriculture

• Many developing nations rely on cash crops for trade, which can create vulnerabilities in their economies and food systems.

• This reliance on exports can lead to food insecurity if global market conditions change.

Food Dependency

• Numerous nations depend on food imports, making them susceptible to global market fluctuations and trade policies.

• This dependency can exacerbate issues of food security and access, particularly in times of crisis.

5.10 - Consequences of Agricultural Practices

Environmental Degradation

• Deforestation: The conversion of forests into agricultural land leads to habitat loss and contributes to climate change.

• Desertification: Overuse of land can result in soil degradation, reducing agricultural productivity and threatening food security.

• Soil Erosion: Poor farming practices can strip nutrients from the soil, leading to decreased fertility and crop yields.

Water Issues

• Overuse of Water Resources: Excessive irrigation practices can deplete local water supplies, impacting ecosystems and communities.

• Salinization: The accumulation of salts in soil due to improper irrigation can reduce soil fertility and crop viability.

• Pollution: Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides can contaminate water sources, posing risks to human health and aquatic ecosystems.

5.11 - Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

• GMOs are engineered crops designed for pest resistance and higher yields, raising debates about safety and environmental impact.

• While they can increase food production, concerns about biodiversity and long-term sustainability persist.

Food Security and Sustainability

• Food security remains a critical issue, with unequal access to food and rising prices affecting vulnerable populations.

• Sustainable practices, such as organic farming and fair trade, are gaining traction as solutions to address these challenges.

Fair Trade and Food Deserts

• The fair trade movement aims to ensure that farmers receive fair wages and ethical treatment, promoting social equity in agriculture.

• Food deserts are areas with limited access to fresh, affordable food, often found in low-income neighborhoods, highlighting disparities in food access.

5.12 - Women in Agriculture

Gender Inequality

• Women contribute 40-50% of global agricultural labor but often lack access to land ownership and financial resources, limiting their economic opportunities.

• Addressing gender inequality in agriculture is crucial for enhancing productivity and food security.

Closing the Gender Gap

• Closing the gender gap in agriculture could increase global food production by 2.5–4%, demonstrating the importance of women's contributions to the sector.

• Empowering women through education, microloans, and land rights can lead to significant improvements in agricultural outcomes.

Key Terms & Definitions

Key Terms

• Agribusiness: Large-scale, corporate-controlled farming operations that dominate the agricultural sector.

• Fair Trade: An ethical movement ensuring fair wages and working conditions for farmers and producers.

• Intensive Agriculture: Farming that requires high labor input and yields high outputs from small land areas, such as rice farming.

• Extensive Agriculture: Farming that involves low labor input over large land areas, such as ranching.

• Von Thünen Model: A theoretical framework explaining land use patterns based on distance from markets and transportation costs.

• Desertification: The process of land degradation caused by various factors, including climate change and human activities.

• Food Desert: Areas with limited access to fresh, affordable food, often affecting low-income populations.