Popper 1944

Piecemeal Social Engineering (1944)

I The Technological Approach to Sociology

• Using 'piecemeal technology' is recommended for methods that have been successful.

• The term 'social technology' and 'social engineering' can be suspicious, reminding some of collectivist planners or technocrats.

• 'Piecemeal tinkering' combined with critical analysis leads to practical results in social and natural sciences.

• Social sciences developed through criticism of proposals for social improvements, determining if actions produce desired results.

• This approach is the 'technological approach' or 'piecemeal social technology'.

• Social science technological problems can be 'private' (e.g., business administration techniques) or 'public' (e.g., prison reform effects).

• Public problems include controlling trade cycles, compatibility of centralized planning with democratic control, and exporting democracy.

• The practical technological approach can lead to significant theoretical problems.

• It imposes a discipline via clarity and testability standards, preventing speculative inclinations from drifting into metaphysics.

• Sociology should aim for a Galileo or Pasteur, not a Newton or Darwin.

• Analogies between social and natural sciences might provoke opposition, but they are useful if fruitful.

• Using the analogy counters dogmatic methodological naturalism or 'scientism'.

Prima Facie Objection

• A technological approach may seem to imply an 'activist' attitude, prejudicing against the 'passivist' view that intervention worsens conditions due to a lack of understanding.

• The author admits sympathy with the activist view and believes universal anti-interventionism is logically untenable.

• The technological approach is neutral and compatible with anti-interventionism, as asserting that interventionism makes matters worse is a technological statement.

• Every natural law can be expressed as an assertion that something cannot happen, e.g., 'You can't carry water in a sieve.'

• The law of conservation of energy: 'You cannot build a perpetual motion machine.'

• The law of entropy : 'You cannot build a machine which is a hundred per cent efficient.'

• Anti-interventionism can be expressed similarly: 'You cannot achieve such and such results without such and such concomitant effects,' making it a technological doctrine.

Sociological Laws

• Sociological laws or hypotheses exist, analogous to natural science laws.

• Examples:

  • 'You cannot introduce agricultural tariffs and at the same time reduce the cost of living.'

  • 'You cannot, in an industrial society, organize consumers' pressure groups as effectively as you can organize certain producers' pressure groups.'

  • 'You cannot have a centrally planned society with a price system that fulfils the main functions of competitive prices.'

  • 'You cannot have full employment without inflation.'

• Power politics examples:

  • 'You cannot introduce a political reform without causing some repercussions which are undesirable from the point of view of the ends aimed at'.

  • 'You cannot introduce a political reform without strengthening the opposing forces, to a degree roughly in ratio to the scope of the reform.'

  • 'You cannot make a revolution without causing a reaction.'

• Plato's law of revolutions: 'You cannot make a successful revolution if the ruling class is not weakened by internal dissension or defeat in war.'

• Lord Acton's law of corruption: 'You cannot give a man power over other men without tempting him to misuse it - a temptation which roughly increases with the amount of power wielded, and which very few are capable of resisting.'

• These examples illustrate statements that a piecemeal technology may discuss and substantiate.

II Piecemeal versus Utopian Engineering

• 'Piecemeal social engineering' describes the practical application of piecemeal technology results.

• It covers social activities, private and public, consciously using technological knowledge.

• Piecemeal social engineering regards ends as beyond technology's province, differing from historicism.

• The piecemeal social engineer designs social institutions and reconstructs existing ones, viewing them as means to certain ends.

• 'Social institution' includes businesses, schools, police forces, churches, and law courts.

• Most social institutions have 'grown' without conscious design.

• The technologist studies the differences and similarities between institutions and physical instruments, formulating hypotheses.

• 'You cannot construct foolproof institutions…Institutions are like fortresses. They must be well designed and properly manned.'

• The piecemeal engineer seeks to achieve goals through small adjustments, continually improving based on results and learning from unavoidable unwanted consequences.

Diverse Ends

• Ends may include wealth accumulation, power distribution, or protecting rights.

• Political social engineering can be totalitarian or liberal.

• Piecemeal engineers recognize the limits of their knowledge, learning from mistakes and avoiding overly complex reforms.

• 'Holistic' or 'Utopian engineering' is an alternative programme of 'social engineering'.

• Holistic social engineering aims to remodel the 'whole of society' via a definite plan, controlling historical forces from 'key positions'.

Comparing Approaches

• Piecemeal and holistic approaches differ despite potentially unlimited scope of piecemeal approach (e.g., constitutional reform).

• Piecemeal methods may lead to changes in the 'class structure of society'.

• Holists reject the piecemeal approach.

• Holistic methods in practice become piecemeal improvisation due to unexpected repercussions, leading to 'unplanned planning'.

Caution and Preparedness

• The difference is caution and preparedness for surprises.

• One doctrine is true; the other, false and leads to grave mistakes.

• One method is possible; the other, impossible.

• The piecemeal engineer has an open mind about reform scope.

• The holist assumes complete reconstruction is possible and necessary, rejecting hypotheses limiting institutional control (e.g., the 'human factor').

• The Utopian approach violates scientific method by rejecting such hypotheses.

• The Utopianist is forced to control the human factor by institutional means, transforming society and man.

• This substitutes building a society fit for people with moulding people to fit the new society, removing tests for success or failure.

• Without the possibility of tests, any claim that a 'scientific' method is being employed evaporates.

• The holistic approach is incompatible with a scientific attitude.

III The Holistic Theory of Social Experiments

• Holistic thinking impacts the historicist theory of social experiments.

• The piecemeal technologist agrees that large-scale social experiments are unsuitable for scientific purposes but denies that realistic experiments must be Utopian attempts.

• Utopian engineering lacks an experimental technology base, unlike physical engineering.

• The analogy between physical and holistic social engineering breaks down.

• Holistic planning is 'Utopian' due to its lack of scientific basis.

• Utopian engineers argue for practical experience through social experiments or holistic engineering.

• Holistic method is seen as the experimental method applied to society, as small-scale experiments are inconclusive.

• Utopianism and historicism believe a social experiment is valuable only if holistic.

• Pieacemeal experiments are fundamental for social knowledge.

• Holistic experiments contribute little to experimental knowledge.

• They are 'experiments' only as actions with uncertain outcomes, not means of acquiring knowledge by comparing expected and obtained results.

Experimental Knowledge

• The holistic view overlooks the experimental knowledge of social life possessed by experienced business people, organizers, politicians, and generals.

• This is pre-scientific knowledge gained through practical efforts.

• A grocer opening a shop or a man joining a queue gains experimental knowledge.

• Markets teach buyers and sellers that price decreases with increased supply and increases with increased demand.

• Piecemeal experiments include price changes by monopolists, new insurance types, sales taxes, or policies to combat trade cycles.

• Some firms increase market knowledge to increase profits later.

• The situation is similar to physical engineering and pre-scientific methods.

• Conscious application of critical methods is important.

• Both approaches use trial and error, progressing by learning from mistakes.

• This describes the method of all empirical sciences.

• The more freely and consciously we risk a trial, and the more critically we watch for the mistakes we always make, the more scientific is the method.

• All theories are trials and experimental corroboration, and the attempt to find out where our theories err.

Scientific Method

• To introduce scientific methods into politics, adopt a critical attitude and realize the necessity of error.

• Consciously search for mistakes.

• Assume every political move has drawbacks.

• Replace convincing ourselves of infallibility with accepting responsibility for mistakes and learning from them.

Holistic Dreams

• We find it difficult to be critical of actions that involve many lives.

• It's very hard to learn from very big mistakes for technical and moral reasons.

• We cannot attribute results to particular measures in holistic experiments.

• Free discussion will not be tolerated, which inhibits criticism.

• The holistic planner simplifies problems by eliminating individual differences, using education and propaganda.

• This destroys the possibility of finding out what people really think, destroying knowledge.

• Political power and social knowledge may be 'complementary'.

• Modern credulity involves the 'benevolent planning authority.'

• Even benevolent planners may be unable to determine if results match intentions.

• The piecemeal method fights against definite wrongs, injustice, exploitation, and avoidable suffering.

• Success or failure is easily appraised.

• This method usually will not lead to an accumulation of power and suppression of criticism.

• A fight against concrete wrongs finds wider support than a fight for a Utopia.

Holistic Engineering

• In democratic countries defending against aggression, broad measures won't suppress public criticism.

• In countries preparing for attack, public criticism must be suppressed for support.

• The Utopianist's claim of using the experimental method is dispelled.

• Physical machines are planned but only after many piecemeal experiments and adjustments.

• The expression 'social engineering' has been usurped by the Utopianist.

25 The Paradoxes of Sovereignty (1945)

• 'The wise shall lead and rule, and the ignorant shall follow.' - Plato

• Plato's idea of justice demands that natural rulers rule and natural slaves slave.

• The state arrests change and should copy its true nature, which indicates Plato saw the fundamental problem of politics in the question: Who shall rule the state?

I

• Plato created a lasting confusion in political philosophy by expressing the problem of politics in the form 'Who should rule?' or 'Whose will should be supreme?'

• This is analogous to his identification of collectivism and altruism.

• Replying with 'the best' or 'the wisest' is useless.

• It persuades us that some fundamental problem of political theory has been solved.

Piecemeal Social Engineering

I The Technological Approach to Sociology

• Piecemeal Technology: Use successful, small-scale methods for social problems.

• Social Engineering: Applying technology to solve social issues, requires careful analysis.

• Practical Results: Combine small changes with analysis.

• Testing Improvements: Social sciences should test if actions improve society.

• Technological Approach: Focuses on solutions, whether for private business or public reform.

Prima Facie Objection

• Neutral Approach: Method is neutral; even arguing against intervention is technological.

• Natural Laws: Like saying 'You can't carry water in a sieve.'

Sociological Laws

• Examples:

  • 'You can't lower cost of living with agricultural tariffs.'

  • 'You can't have central planning with competitive prices.'

• Power Politics: Reforms always have unintended consequences.

• Lord Acton's Law: 'Power corrupts.'

II Piecemeal versus Utopian Engineering

• Piecemeal Social Engineering: Using knowledge in social activities.

• Social Institutions: Businesses, schools, police, are tools to improve.

• Small Adjustments: Make small changes and learn from results.

Comparing Approaches

• Holists Reject Piecemeal: Holists don't like small adjustments.

• Improvisation: Holistic methods become piecemeal in practice.

Caution and Preparedness

• Key Difference: Caution and expecting surprises.

• Complete Reconstruction: Holists think total change is needed.

• Human Factor: Utopians try to control people to fit the new society.

• Unscientific: Holistic approach isn't scientific.

III The Holistic Theory of Social Experiments

• Large-Scale Experiments: Piecemeal technologists dislike large experiments.

• Piecemeal Experiments: Fundamental for social knowledge.

• Holistic Experiments: Actions with uncertain results.

Experimental Knowledge

• Trial and Error: Learn from mistakes.

• Scientific Method: Test ideas and watch for mistakes.

Scientific Method

• Critical Attitude: Be critical and expect errors in politics