AP Comparative Government & Politics - Mexico

Mexico: A Federal Republic Forged in Revolution

• Mexico is a federal republic that emerged from two significant revolutions:

  • The first in 1821, establishing independence from Spain.

  • The second in 1911, removing a military dictator and initiating a transition to constitutional republicanism.

• Authoritarianism persisted after 1911 with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominating politics for most of the 20th century.

• The transition from one-party rule to democracy began in the 1980s and 1990s.

• Federalism is increasingly apparent, dividing powers between national and state levels.

Demographics and Social Structure

• Population: 124 million.

• Ethnic Composition:

  • Mestizo (mix of indigenous and Spanish heritage): 62%.

  • Amerindian: 30% (concentrated in the southern, rural region).

  • White/European descent: 16.5%.

• Religion: 83% Catholic.

• Urbanization: 80% of Mexicans live in urban areas; 25% in Mexico City.

• Cleavage: A divide exists between an urbanized, educated middle class and a poor, rural, indigenous population.

Geographic Influences

• Diverse Climate: Includes mountains, deserts, coastal beaches, fertile valleys, high plains, and rain forests.

• Regional Divisions: Mountains and deserts contribute to regional divisions, impacting Mexican politics.

• Arable Land: Limited arable farmland slowed development after independence.

• Natural Resources: Recent discoveries of accessible natural resources (e.g., oil).

• Unequal Distribution: Resources benefit a small elite rather than the broader population.

• US Border: A 2,000-mile border with the United States significantly shapes Mexican foreign policy concerns, focusing on economic and immigration issues.

Legitimacy

• Constitution of 1917: Establishes rational-legal legitimacy through several key tenets:

  • Non-reelection: Prevents the concentration of power by prohibiting presidents and other officials from serving consecutive terms.

  • National Land Rights: Affirms the nation's claim to land and resources, particularly emphasizing communal ownership, a legacy of the Revolution.

  • Anticlericalism: Limits the power and influence of the Catholic Church in state affairs, reflecting historical conflicts.

• Revolutionary Reverence: Political parties invoke the Revolution's goals to gain support:

  • PRI: Claims to embody the Revolution's original intentions, using its long history and association with national symbols to reinforce legitimacy.

  • PRD: Emerged from the PRI, asserting the parent

• Revolutionary Reverence: Political parties claim allegiance to the Revolution's goals.

• PRI: Strong ties to the Revolution due to its longevity and association with national colors.

• PRD: Formed by former priístas who believed the PRI had deviated from its revolutionary roots.

• PAN: Founded in 1939, opposing the Revolution's extremes, associating with the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe to gain traditional legitimacy.

• Revolutionary Heroes: Figures like Emiliano Zapata continue to resonate.

Regime Evolution

• Pre-2000: Mexico was an authoritarian state dominated by the PRI.

• PRI's Rule: Established in 1929 by Plutarco Calles to ensure presidential succession, but often acted as a "democradura" (democratic dictatorship).

• Election of 2000: Vicente Fox (PAN) won the presidency, marking a turning point.

• Current Regime: Characterized as an electoral democracy with fair, competitive elections.

• Challenges: Press freedom is compromised by violence from drug cartels, leading to a "Not Free" rating from Freedom House.

• Freedom House Rating: Partly Free (political rights: 3, civil liberties: 3).

• Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index: Flawed Democracy 6.47

Economic Systems

• Mixed Economy: Combines market and command economy elements.

• Economic Liberalization: Since the 1980s, structural adjustment programs (SAPs) have led to global manufacturing prominence.

• NAFTA: Membership opened trade opportunities, with maquiladoras (factories) built in northern Mexico.

• Income Inequality: Trade policies increased GDP per capita but also widened the gap between rich and poor.

• GINI Index: Income inequality measured at 0.48.

• State Ownership: The government retains ownership of industries, notably PEMEX (the oil giant).

• PEMEX: State-owned but inefficient; recent legislation allows some foreign direct investment.

Political Culture

• POPULISM AND CELEBRATION OF REVOLUTION: Ordinary Mexicans stood up against powerful elites in Mexico’s major nineteenth- and twentieth-century revolutions, and charismatic leaders led popular movements to revolutionary victory. Mexican culture celebrates the legacy of its revolutionary heroes like Father Miguel Hidalgo, Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata.

• AUTHORITARIANISM: While seemingly contradictory to populism, Mexico has a long tradition of authoritarianism running from Spanish colonial rule, through the military rulers of the nineteenth century, and up to the PRI bosses of the twentieth century. Strong men at the top acting as chief executive are typically unchecked in their ability to wield extensive political powers.

• CATHOLICISM: Spanish colonization built society in Mexico with the Catholic mission as the center of daily life and political organization. Priests were active politically for most of Mexico’s history (excepting a brief anti-Catholic backlash in the 1920s and 1930s), and the Church remains influential in modern politics. Today, more than 80 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic, and most are observant, attending mass on a regular basis.

• PATRON-CLIENTELISM: The regional divides of Mexican politics were brought together among top elites through a favor-trading system of quid pro quo, which benefited everyone at the top mutually. The by- product of this patron-client network has been longstanding official corruption and authoritarianism, exemplified by the PRI’s control of Mexico’s political processes to hold on to the power and wealth of the state throughout the twentieth century.

• SPANISH LANGUAGE: Mexicans are united by near universal use of the Spanish language. Despite a large indigenous minority in southern Mexico, very few still speak their indigenous language, and many of these languages are in danger of extinction. While there is no official language in Mexico, Spanish is the de facto official language spoken by over 99 percent of the population.

Colonial Rule (1519–1821)

• Hernan Cortes: The first Spanish conquistador arrived in 1519, capturing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and imposing direct rule.

• Mestizo Ethnicity: Spanish soldiers mixed with the native population, creating the new mestizo ethnicity.

• Demographics: Today, mestizos make up over 60 percent of the population.

Independence (1810–1911)

• Independence Struggle: Began in 1810, achieving full recognition in 1821.

• Father Miguel Hidalgo: Organized an army of 90,000 indigenous farmers to fight against Spanish rule but was defeated and executed.

• Criollo Involvement: Criollos joined the revolution due to limited opportunities.

• Post-Independence Instability: Mexican politics became unstable, with armed bands (camarillas) led by caudillos (strongmen generals) competing for control.

• Frequent Leadership Changes: Thirty-six different presidents between 1833 and 1855.

• Territorial Losses: The United States seized significant Mexican territory, including Texas (1845), the Mexican Cession (1846–1848), and the Gadsden Purchase (1853).

Porfiriato (1876–1911)

• Political Stability: The fighting among camarillas came to a close, and there was not another internal revolution until 1910–1911.

• Porfirio Diaz: President from 1876 to 1911, promising non-reelection but controlling the country for 35 years.

• Economic Growth: Diaz centralized control over the Mexican economy and invited foreign investment, particularly in mining.

• Economic Problems: Massive economic growth came at a high cost. Hundreds of thousands of peasants were dispossessed of their land to make room for major mining operations, and communal farming lands among indigenous groups in the south were seized, privatized into plots, and sold off to private owners.

Revolution of 1910 and the Establishment of the PRI (1910–1934)

• Causes: Calls for a new presidential election and removal of Diaz from office sprang from elites and displaced Mexicans.

• Diaz's Abdication: Blocked the election, leading to opposition and his forced departure in 1911.

• Civil War: Nearly a decade of instability and civil war between rival factions.

• Constitution of 1917: Drafted by northern constitutionalists; remains the governing document.

• Creation of the PRI: Formed in 1929 to end violence among revolutionary generals by sharing power.

Reform Under Cárdenas (1934–1940)

• Lázaro Cárdenas: President from 1934 to 1940, a charismatic former general.

• Land Reform: Used state powers to redistribute land into agricultural collectives (ejidos).

• Labor Reform: Encouraged worker unions and enforced labor rights (e.g., eight-hour workday).

• Nationalization: Forced foreign businesses to leave, creating PEMEX (state-owned oil company), and implemented import substitution industrialization (ISI).

• State Corporatism: Concentrated power in the presidency by inviting select groups to meet with policymakers.

The Pendulum Theory (1946–1980s)

• Miguel Aleman: Reversed Cárdenas's ejido system and ISI, encouraging entrepreneurship and foreign investment.

• Economic Policy Shifts: Presidents alternated between leftist and right-leaning models.

• Rise of Technicos: Educated, technical experts gained power within the PRI.

• Neoliberal Model: The PRI adopted a neoliberal model with private entrepreneurship, limited government, privatization, and free trade.

• Mexican Miracle: Substantial GDP growth in the 1980s, but largely due to high oil production.

• Collapse of Oil Prices: In 1982, led to debt crisis and the need for IMF assistance.

Structural Adjustment and Reform (1982–2000)

• IMF Intervention: Loans provided in exchange for implementing structural adjustment programs (SAPs).

• Structural Adjustment Program Requirements:

  • Stop running annual budget deficits.

  • Privatize state-owned companies.

  • Cut government spending.

  • Open borders to foreign competition and free trade.

• Controversial Election of 1988: Allegedly rigged election of Carlos Salinas de Gortari; PRI burned ballots in 1991 to hide evidence.

• Salinas's Reforms: Signed NAFTA, privatized Telmex (telephone company), cited as an example of corruption involving Carlos Slim Helu.

• Creation of IFE/INE: Independent election regulating body created to ensure fair elections.

• 1994 Turmoil: Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, assassination of PRI candidate.

• Economic Crisis: The peso's value imploded; foreign investors fled the country.

• Election of Ernesto Zedillo (PRI): Despite turmoil, voters chose stability.

• Election of Vicente Fox (PAN) in 2000: Ended 71 years of PRI rule, marking a milestone for Mexican democracy.

Significant Social Cleavages

• URBAN VS. RURAL: Population is highly urbanized. Urbanites have higher literacy rates and incomes and different voting behaviors. Rural voters seem more concerned with short term gain.

• SOCIAL CLASS: Deeply divided economically, with a Gini coefficient of 0.43. There is rising inequality partially caused by NAFTA.

• ETHNICITY: About 65 percent of Mexicans identify as Mestizo, 17.5 percent identify as Amerindian, and 16.5 percent identify as predominantly white or European descent.

• ETHNICITY: This is evidenced by the ongoing troubles with the EZLN Zapatista Movement, an armed resistance group that has periodically established autonomous municipalities in the south consistent with the leftist ambitions of the group. All of these can be somewhat characterized as coinciding cleavages, since the Mestizos live primarily in more prosperous cities in the north, while Amerindians live in poorer rural communities in the south.

Civil Society

• PRI's Corporatism: Organized groups into labor, peasants, and middle-class business sectors that supported the PRI.

• Emergence of Pluralism: Civil society became more pluralist in the late 20th century as Mexico liberalized.

• Growth of Civil Society Organizations: Increased from 2,500 in 1994 to over 10,000 by 2008, with religious organizations being most common.

Events

• TLATELOCO PLAZA: Government arrested many of the leaders of the independent unions. Students at major universities began to join in the cause of the farmers and unions, and the government responded by raiding schools and arresting student leaders in the name of stopping “gang activity."

• 2006 ELECTION: The 2006 election was the closest in Mexico’s history, with PAN candidate Felipe Calderón defeating PRD candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador by only about 250,000 votes (just over 0.5 percent of the total).

• YO SOY #132: Peña Nieto won the election and became president in the end, but Yo Soy #132 represents the first time social media played a major role in the organization of a protest movement in Mexico.

Political Parties

• The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI): Created in the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution by competing caudillos who sought to unite their rule and share power rather than continue with the instability and bloodshed that had characterized politics in the early twentieth century. It ruled Mexico from 1929 until 2000, the longest continual rule for any political party in the world so far.

• The National Action Party (PAN): The PAN was formed by business leaders frustrated with PRI repression and corporatism, and functioned as the PRI’s opposition to the right until winning the presidency in 2000 with the election of Vicente Fox, followed by Felipe Calderón in 2006.

• The Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD): The PRD has acted as the PRI’s opposition to the left since it broke away from the PRI as a splinter movement after the fraudulent 1988 election.

• The National Regeneration Movement (MORENA): Andrés Manuel López Obrador, formerly of the PRD, created MORENA after his loss in the 2012 elections.

Elections

• Presidential Election: Mexico’s president is directly elected every six years in a single ballot plurality system.

• Legislative Elections: Mexico elects members to two legislative houses of the Congress of the Union, called the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.

• State Elections: At the state level, each of Mexico’s 31 states directly elects a governor to a six-year term, though the years of the election are staggered state-by-state.

Interest Groups

• PRI's Arrangement: The PRI’s arrangement of state corporatism meant that only groups integrated into the PRI’s system could influence policymaking, but reforms in the 1980s and 1990s broke this model down and led to the rise of an independent pluralist interest group system.

The Media

• PRI Manipulated the Media: The PRI manipulated the media to secure favorable coverage throughout its time in power. There was no central state media agency, and the variety of media outlets were privately owned.

State Institutions

• THE PRESIDENT: The president of Mexico is elected to a single six-year term, and acts as both the ceremonial head of state and as the head of government.

• THE CONGRESS: The Mexican Congress of the Union is both structurally and functionally bicameral, with both houses exercising meaningful power in policymaking.