Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

1. Differentiate between anatomy and physiology

• Anatomy: Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts, as well as their relationships to one another.

  • Gross Anatomy: Visible structures studied without a microscope (e.g., organs in the torso model).

  • Microscopic Anatomy: Structures too small to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cells, tissues viewed on slides).

• Physiology: Study of the function of body parts and how they work together to sustain life.

Imaging Techniques:

• X-rays: Use electromagnetic radiation to view dense structures like bones (appear white).

• CT (Computed Tomography): Produces cross-sectional images for detecting tumors or abnormalities.

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields to view soft tissues, brain, or ligaments.

• PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows metabolic activity; often used in cancer diagnosis.

• Ultrasonography: Uses sound waves for soft tissues like the heart or during pregnancy.

2. Levels of Organization

From simplest to most complex:

1. Atom: Basic chemical units (e.g., carbon, oxygen).

2. Molecule: Combination of atoms (e.g., DNA, water).

3. Organelle: Functional units within a cell (e.g., mitochondria).

4. Cell: Basic unit of life (e.g., muscle cells).

5. Tissue: Group of cells working together (e.g., epithelial tissue).

6. Organ: Composed of two or more tissue types (e.g., heart, lungs).

7. Organ System: Group of organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system).

8. Organism: Complete living being.

Lab Application: Match slides or models to specific levels of organization.

3. Visible Organs and Organ Systems

• Visible Organs (human torso model):

  • Brain: Nervous system; processes sensory input.

  • Heart: Cardiovascular system; pumps blood.

  • Liver: Digestive system; detoxifies blood, produces bile.

  • Lungs: Respiratory system; oxygenates blood.

  • Stomach: Digestive system; breaks down food.

  • Kidneys: Urinary system; filters blood.

  • Spleen: Lymphatic system; removes old red blood cells.

  • Adrenal Glands: Endocrine system; produces hormones.

Functions of Organ Systems:

1. Integumentary: Protection, thermoregulation.

2. Skeletal: Support, movement, protection.

3. Muscular: Movement, heat production.

4. Nervous: Controls responses to stimuli.

5. Endocrine: Regulates body processes via hormones.

6. Cardiovascular: Transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste.

7. Lymphatic/Immune: Defense against infection.

8. Respiratory: Gas exchange.

9. Digestive: Nutrient absorption, waste elimination.

10. Urinary: Removes waste, balances fluids.

11. Reproductive: Produces offspring.

4. Anatomical Terms and Body Cavities

Anatomical Position:

• Body upright, arms at sides, palms forward. Always refer to the patient's right and left.

Planes:

• Sagittal: Divides body into left and right.

• Transverse (Horizontal): Divides body into top and bottom.

• Frontal (Coronal): Divides body into front and back.

Body Cavities:

• Dorsal:

  • Cranial: Brain.

  • Vertebral: Spinal cord.

• Ventral:

  • Thoracic: Heart (pericardial cavity), lungs (pleural cavities).

  • Abdominopelvic:

    • Abdominal: Liver, stomach, intestines.

    • Pelvic: Bladder, reproductive organs.

Serous Membranes:

• Visceral: Covers organs.

• Parietal: Lines cavity walls.

• Examples:

  • Peritoneum: Abdominal cavity.

  • Pleura: Lungs.

  • Pericardium: Heart.

5. Vertebrate Structures

Humans share basic structures with all vertebrates:

• Spinal column

• Bilateral symmetry

• Tube-like digestive system

• Segmented body plan

Chapter 2: Cells: The Living Units

1. Cell Structure and Function

• Plasma Membrane: Regulates what enters/leaves the cell.

• Nucleus: Controls genetic information.

• Mitochondria: ATP production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough/Smooth): Synthesizes proteins (rough) and lipids (smooth).

• Golgi Apparatus: Packages and processes proteins.

• Lysosomes: Digest cellular waste.

• Cytoskeleton: Provides shape and support.

Cell Types:

• Muscle cells: Contract for movement.

• Epithelial cells: Line surfaces.

• Nerve cells: Transmit signals.

2. Cellular Processes

• Apoptosis: Programmed cell death (normal).

• Necrosis: Accidental cell death (injury).

Mitosis vs. Meiosis:

• Mitosis: Produces 2 identical daughter cells (somatic cells).

• Meiosis: Produces 4 non-identical gametes (sex cells).

3. Tissue Repair and Terms

• Atrophy: Decrease in size.

• Hypertrophy: Increase in size.

• Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number.

• Metaplasia: Change in cell type.

• Neoplasia: Abnormal growth (tumors).

• Dysplasia: Disorganized growth (often precancerous).

Chapter 3: Embryology

• Germ Layers:

  • Ectoderm: Becomes skin, brain, nerves.

  • Mesoderm: Becomes muscles, bones, blood.

  • Endoderm: Becomes digestive and respiratory linings.

Chapter 4: Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

• Simple Squamous: Gas exchange (lungs).

• Stratified Squamous: Protection (skin).

• Simple Cuboidal: Secretion (glands).

• Simple Columnar: Absorption (intestines).

• Pseudostratified: Mucus transport (trachea).

• Transitional: Stretch (bladder).

2. Connective Tissue

• Dense Regular: Tendons.

• Areolar: Wraps organs.

• Adipose: Stores energy.

• Hyaline Cartilage: Joint surfaces.

• Elastic Cartilage: Ear.

• Bone: Compact and spongy.

• Blood: Transport oxygen.

3. Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated.

4. Nervous Tissue

• Neurons: Transmit signals.

• Neuroglia: Support neurons.

Comprehensive Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide

Skeletal System

Key Concepts

1. Differentiate Between:
   

   • Cartilage and Bone:
     

     • Cartilage: Flexible connective tissue with no blood vessels or nerves; found in joints, rib tips, and the nose. Types: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.

     • Bone: Rigid connective tissue with a vascular supply; provides structural support and stores minerals.

   • Spongy (Cancellous) vs. Compact Bone:
     

     • Spongy Bone: Composed of trabeculae, houses red bone marrow, and found in the epiphyses of long bones.

     • Compact Bone: Dense and organized into osteons, providing strength for weight-bearing.

   • Three Types of Cartilage:
     

     • Hyaline: Found in joints, nose, trachea; reduces friction and absorbs shock.

     • Elastic: Found in the ear and epiglottis; provides flexibility.

     • Fibrocartilage: Found in intervertebral discs; resists compression.

   • Interstitial and Appositional Growth:
     

     • Interstitial Growth: Growth from within, increasing length.

     • Appositional Growth: Growth on the outer surface, increasing thickness.

   • Cell Types:
     

     • Chondroblasts: Cartilage-forming cells.

     • Chondrocytes: Mature cartilage cells located in lacunae.

     • Osteogenic Cells: Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts.

     • Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells that secrete the matrix.

     • Osteocytes: Mature bone cells maintaining bone tissue.

     • Osteoclasts: Bone-resorbing cells.

2. Functions:
   

   • Skeletal System: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis.

   • Cartilage: Shock absorption, smooth joint surfaces, and flexible support.

   • Bone: Structural framework, movement leverage, mineral storage, and blood cell production.

   • Bone Cells: Growth, remodeling, and calcium homeostasis.

3. Histology:
   

   • Identify the following structures in compact and spongy bone:

     • Chondrocytes, Osteocytes

     • Haversian System/Osteon

     • Lamellae, Lacunae

     • Central Canal, Canaliculi

4. Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone:
   

   • Label and describe the functions of:

     • Periosteum: Outer covering for nourishment and repair.

     • Articular Cartilage: Smooth joint surfaces.

     • Endosteum: Lines the medullary cavity.

     • Epiphysis/Diaphysis: Ends and shaft of long bones.

     • Epiphyseal Plate/Line: Growth region in children; ossified in adults.

     • Medullary Cavity: Houses marrow.

     • Red Marrow: Produces blood cells.

     • Yellow Marrow: Stores fat.

     • Spongy and Compact Bone: Provides strength and support.

5. Bone Matrix Composition:
   

   • Organic components: Collagen for flexibility.

   • Inorganic components: Hydroxyapatite for hardness.

6. Epiphyseal Plate Growth Activity:
   

   • Identify layers:

     • Resting Zone: Inactive cartilage.

     • Proliferation Zone: Rapid chondrocyte division.

     • Hypertrophy Zone: Enlargement of chondrocytes.

     • Calcification Zone: Chondrocytes die; cartilage calcifies.

     • Ossification Zone: Bone formation.

7. Bone Markings:
   

   • Projections: Processes, tuberosities, spines.

   • Depressions: Fossae, foramen, grooves.

8. Ossification Processes:
   

   • Endochondral Ossification: Bone develops from cartilage.

     • Steps: Cartilage model → Calcification → Primary ossification center forms → Medullary cavity develops → Secondary ossification centers form → Growth plates ossify.

   • Intramembranous Ossification: Bone forms directly from mesenchyme.

     • Steps: Mesenchymal cells → Osteoblasts form matrix → Spongy bone develops → Compact bone forms.

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Key Concepts

1. Identify Bones and Surface Markings:
   

   • Axial Skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

   • Appendicular Skeleton: Upper and lower limbs, shoulder and pelvic girdles.

   • Fetal Skull: Fontanelles and sutures.

2. Differentiate Between:
   

   • Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton.

   • Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae.

   • Atlas (C1) vs. Axis (C2).

   • True Ribs (1-7) vs. False Ribs (8-12).

3. Identify Right vs. Left Bones:
   

   • Upper and lower limbs (except clavicle and fibula).

4. Male vs. Female Pelvis:
   

   • Female pelvis: Wider, shallower, larger pelvic inlet.

   • Male pelvis: Narrower, deeper, smaller pelvic inlet.

Integumentary System

Key Concepts

1. Skin Layers and Structures:
   

   • Epidermis: Strata from deep to superficial:

     • Stratum Basale

     • Stratum Spinosum

     • Stratum Granulosum

     • Stratum Lucidum (in thick skin)

     • Stratum Corneum

   • Dermis:

     • Papillary Layer: Dermal papillae, Meissner’s corpuscles.

     • Reticular Layer: Dense connective tissue, Pacinian corpuscles.

   • Hypodermis: Adipose tissue for insulation and cushioning.

2. Accessory Structures:
   

   • Hair: Follicle, root, shaft, bulb.

   • Nails: Free edge, lunule, root, plate, cuticle.

   • Glands:

     • Sebaceous Glands: Produce sebum.

     • Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands:

       • Eccrine: Thermoregulation.

       • Apocrine: Found in armpits, secrete into hair follicles.

3. Skin Color Variation:
   

   • Influenced by melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

   • Evolutionary hypotheses: Protection from UV radiation, vitamin D synthesis.

4. Functions of Skin:
   

   • Protection, thermoregulation, sensation, excretion, and vitamin D synthesis.

5. Thick vs. Thin Skin:
   

   • Thick Skin: Found on palms/soles; has a stratum lucidum.

   • Thin Skin: Covers most of the body; lacks stratum lucidum.

6. Clinical Applications:
   

   • Skin’s response to injuries, burns, or diseases (e.g., melanoma, psoriasis).