Untitled Flashcards Set

Alfred Thayer Mahan  - A naval officer and historian whose book The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) argued that national power depended on a strong navy. His ideas influenced U.S. expansionism, including the construction of the Panama Canal and the annexation of overseas territories.

Queen Liliuokalani - In 1891, she ascended to the throne of the Hawaiian royal family and tried to eliminate white control of the Hawaiian government. Two years later, Hawaii’s white population revolted and seized power with the support of American marines.

George Dewey - On April 30, 1898, Commodore George Dewey’s small U.S. naval squadron defeated the Spanish warships in Manila Bay in the Philippines. This quick victory aroused expansionist fever in the United States.

Emilio Aguinaldo - He was a leader in Filipino struggle for independence. During the war of 1898, Commodore George Dewey brought Aguinaldo back to the Philippines from exile to help fight the Spanish. However, after the Spanish surrendered to Americans, America annexed the Philippines and Aguinaldo fought against the American military until he was captured in 1901.

William Howard Taft - Served as the 27th U.S. President (1909–1913) and later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He pursued Dollar Diplomacy, encouraging American businesses to invest in Latin America and Asia to extend U.S. influence.

Woodrow Wilson - In the 1912 presidential election, Woodrow Wilson ran under the slogan of New Freedom, which promised to improve of the banking system, lower tariffs, and break up monopolies. He sought to deliver on these promises through passage of the Underwood-Simmons Tariff, the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, and new antitrust laws. Though he was weak on implementing social change and showed a little interest in the plight of African Americans, he did eventually support some labor reform. At the beginning of the First World War, Wilson kept America neutral, but provided the Allies with credit for purchases of supplies. However, the sinking of U.S. merchant ships and the news of Germany encouraging Mexico to attack America caused Wilson to ask Congress to declare war on Germany. Following the war, Wilson supported the entry of America into the League of Nations and the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles; but Congress would not approve the entry or ratification.

Ida Tarbell – Investigative journalist and leading "muckraker" who wrote The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), exposing John D. Rockefeller’s monopolistic practices, leading to the breakup of Standard Oil under the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Jacob Riis – A journalist and photographer whose book How the Other Half Lives (1890) exposed the poor living conditions in urban tenements, leading to housing reforms.

Florence Kelley - As the head of the National Consumer’s League, she led the crusade to promote state laws to regulate the number of working hours imposed on women who were wives and mothers.

Booker T Washington - He founded a leading college for African Americans in Tuskegee, Alabama, and become the foremost black educator in America by the 1890s. He believed that the African American community should establish an economic base for its advancement before striving for social equality. His critics charged that his philosophy sacrificed educational and civil rights for dubious social acceptance and economic opportunities.

W.E.B Du Bois - He criticized Booker T. Washington’s views on civil rights as being accommodationist. He advocated “ceaseless agitation” for civil rights and the immediate end to segregation and an enforcement of laws to protect civil rights and equality. He promoted an education for African Americans that would nurture bold leaders who were willing to challenge discrimination in politics.

John J. Pershing - After Pancho Villa had conducted several raids into Texas and New Mexico, President Woodrow Wilson sent troops under the command of John J. Pershing into Mexico to stop Villa. However, after a year of chasing Villa and not being able to catch him, they returned to the United States. During the First World War, Pershing commanded the first contingent of U.S. soldiers sent to Europe and advised the War Department to send additional American forces.

George Creel - He convinced President Woodrow Wilson that the best approach to influencing public opinion was through propaganda rather than censorship. As the executive head of the Committee on Public Information, he produced propaganda that conveyed the Allies’ war aims.

Alice Paul - She was a leader of the women’s suffrage movement and head of the Congressional Committee of National Women Suffrage Association. She instructed female suffrage activists to use more militant tactics, such as picketing state legislatures, chaining themselves to public buildings, inciting police to arrest them, and undertaking hunger strikes.

Henry Ford – Industrialist and founder of Ford Motor Company. He revolutionized automobile manufacturing with the moving assembly line, dramatically lowering costs and making cars affordable to average Americans.

Charles Lindbergh – In 1927, he became the first person to complete a solo nonstop transatlantic flight, flying from New York to Paris in The Spirit of St. Louis. His feat symbolized technological progress in the 1920s.

Margaret Sanger - As a birth-control activist, she worked to distribute birth control information to working-class women and opened the nation’s first family-planning clinic in 1916. She organized the American Birth Control League, which eventually changed its name to Planned Parenthood.

Marcus Garvey - He was the leading spokesman for Negro Nationalism, which exalted blackness, black cultural expression, and black exclusiveness. He called upon African Americans to liberate themselves from the surrounding white culture and create their own businesses, cultural centers, and newspapers. He was also the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association.

Warren G. Harding - In the 1920 presidential election, he was the Republican nominee who promised Americans a “return to normalcy,” which would mean a return to conservative values and a turning away from President Wilson’s internationalism. His message resonated with voters’ conservative postwar mood; and he won the election. Once in office, Harding’s administration dismantled many of the social and economic components of progressivism and pursued a pro-business agenda. Harding appointed four pro-business Supreme Court Justices and his administration cut taxes, increased tariffs and promoted a lenient attitude towards government regulation of corporations. However, he did speak out against racism and ended the exclusion of African Americans from federal positions. His administration did suffer from a series of scandals as the result of him appointing members of the Ohio gang to government positions.

Teapot Dome - Harding administration scandal in which Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall profited from secret leasing to private oil companies of government oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California.

Calvin Coolidge - 30th President (1923–1929) who championed pro-business policies, limited government intervention, and tax cuts, contributing to the economic boom of the 1920s.

Herbert Hoover - Prior to becoming president, Hoover served as the secretary of commerce in both the Harding and Coolidge administrations. During his tenure at the Commerce Department, he pursued new markets for business and encouraged business leaders to share information as part of the trade-association movement. The Great Depression hit while he was president. Hoover believed that the nation’s business structure was sound and sought to revive the economy through boosting the nation’s confidence. He also tried to restart the economy with government constructions projects, lower taxes and new federal loan programs, but nothing worked.

Alfred E. Smith - In the 1928 presidential election, he won the Democratic nomination, but failed to win the presidency. Rural voters distrusted him for being Catholic and the son of Irish immigrants as well as his anti-Prohibition stance.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930) – The highest U.S. tariff in history, it aimed to protect American industries but worsened the Great Depression by triggering retaliatory tariffs from other countries, decreasing international trade.

Franklin D. Roosevelt – 32nd President (1933–1945) who led the U.S. through the Great Depression and WWII. His New Deal programs provided relief, recovery, and reform to stabilize the economy.

Eleanor Roosevelt - She redefined the role of the presidential spouse and was the first woman to address a national political convention, write a nationally syndicated column and hold regular press conferences. She travelled throughout the nation to promote the New Deal, women’s causes, organized labor, and meet with African American leaders. She was her husband’s liaison to liberal groups and brought women activists and African American and labor leaders to the White House.

Huey P. Long - He began his political career in Louisiana where he developed a reputation for being an unscrupulous reformer. As a U.S. senator, he became a critic of President Roosevelt’s New Deal Plan and offered his alternative called the Share-theWealth program. He was assassinated in 1935.

Father Charles E. Coughlin – Catholic priest and radio personality who criticized FDR’s New Deal as too moderate. He later promoted antisemitic and pro-fascist rhetoric.

Dr. Francis E. Townsend – A critic of FDR, he proposed a pension plan for the elderly, which helped influence the creation of Social Security in 1935.

Benito Mussolini - The Italian founder of the Fascist party who came to power in Italy in 1922 and allied himself with Adolf Hitler and the Axis powers during the Second World War.

Adolf Hitler – Leader of Nazi Germany responsible for WWII and the Holocaust.

Francisco Franco – Spanish fascist leader who won the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) with support from Hitler and Mussolini.

Winston Churchill - The British prime minister who led the country during the Second World War. Along with Roosevelt and Stalin, he helped shape the post-war world at the Yalta Conference. He also coined the term “iron curtain,” which he used in his famous “The Sinews of Peace” speech.

Joseph Stalin - The Bolshevik leader who succeeded Lenin as the leader of the Soviet Union in 1924 and ruled the country until his death. During his totalitarian rule of the Soviet Union, he used purges and a system of forced labor camps to maintain control over the country. During the Yalta Conference, he claimed vast areas of Eastern Europe for Soviet domination. After the end of the Second World War, the alliance between the Soviet Union and the Western powers altered into the tension of the cold war and Stalin erected the “iron curtain” between Eastern and Western Europe.

Dwight D. Eisenhower - During the Second World War, he commanded the Allied Forces landing in Africa and was the supreme Allied commander as well as planner for Operation Overlord. In 1952, he was elected president on his popularity as a war hero and his promises to clean up Washington and find an honorable peace in the Korean War. His administration sought to cut the nation’s domestic programs and budget, but he left the basic structure of the New Deal intact. In July of 1953, he announced the end of fighting in Korea. He appointed Earl Warren to the Supreme Court whose influence helped the court become an important force for social and political change. His secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, institutionalized the policies of containment and deterrence. Eisenhower supported the withdrawal of British forces from the Suez Canal and established the Eisenhower doctrine, which promised to aid any nation against aggression by a communist nation. Eisenhower preferred that state and local institutions to handle civil rights issues, and he refused to force states to comply with the Supreme Court’s civil rights decisions. However, he did propose the legislation that became the Civil Rights Act of 1957.

Douglas MacArthur - During World War II, he and Admiral Chester Nimitz dislodged the Japanese military from the Pacific Islands they had occupied. Following the war, he was in charge of the occupation of Japan. After North Korea invaded South Korea, Truman sent the U.S. military to defend South Korea under the command of MacArthur. Later in the war, Truman expressed his willingness to negotiate the restoration of prewar boundaries which MacArthur attempted to undermine. Truman fired MacArthur for his open insubordination.

J. Robert Oppenheimer - He led the group of physicists at the laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, who constructed the first atomic bomb.

Harry S. Truman - As President Roosevelt’s vice president, he succeeded him after his death near the end of the Second World War. After the war, Truman wrestled with the inflation of both prices and wages, and his attempts to bring them both under control led to clashes with organized labor and Republicans. He did work with Congress to pass the National Security Act, which made the Joint Chiefs of Staff a permanent position and created the National Military Establishment and the Central Intelligence Agency. He banned racial discrimination in the hiring of federal employees and ended racial segregation in the armed forces. In foreign affairs, he established the Truman Doctrine to contain communism and the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe. After North Korea invaded South Korea, Truman sent the U.S. military to defend South Korea under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Later in the war, Truman expressed his willingness to negotiate the restoration of prewar boundaries which MacArthur attempted to undermine. Truman fired MacArthur for his open insubordination.

Pan-American Conference – Diplomatic meetings where the U.S. promoted cooperation with Latin America, especially to gain allies during WWII.

Jingoism – Aggressive nationalism that favors war and expansion.

Cuban Revolt – Cubans fought for independence from Spain in the 1890s, leading to the Spanish-American War.

Yellow Journalism - A type of journalism, epitomized in the 1890s by the newspaper empires of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, that intentionally manipulates public opinion through sensational headlines about both real and invented events.

De Lome letter - Spanish ambassador Depuy de Lôme wrote a letter to a friend in Havana in which he described President McKinley as “weak” and a seeker of public admiration. This letter was stolen and published in the New York Journal, which increased the American public’s dislike of Spain and moved the two countries closer to war.

Teller Amendment - On April 20, 1898, a joint resolution of Congress declared Cuba independent and demanded the withdrawal of Spanish forces. The Teller amendment was added to this resolution, and it declaimed any designs the United States had on Cuban territory.

Platt Amendment (1901) – Gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuba’s affairs and maintain Guantanamo Bay.

Sphere of Influence – A region where one country has political and economic control, such as European control over China.

Rough Riders - The First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, led in battle in the Spanish-American War by Theodore Roosevelt; they were victorious in their only battle near Santiago, Cuba; and Roosevelt used the notoriety to aid his political career.

Hawaii - Overthrown by U.S. businessmen in 1893 and annexed in 1898.

Theodore Roosevelt - As the assistant secretary of the navy, he supported expansionism, American imperialism and war with Spain. He led the First Volunteer Cavalry, or Rough Riders, in Cuba during the war of 1898 and used the notoriety of this military campaign for political gain. As President McKinley’s vice president, he succeeded McKinley after his assassination. His forceful foreign policy became known as “big stick diplomacy.” Domestically, his policies on natural resources helped start the conversation movement. Unable to win the Republican nomination for president in 1912, he formed his own party of progressive Republicans called the “Bull Moose” party.

Open Door Policy - In hopes of protecting the Chinese market for U.S. exports, Secretary of State John Hay unilaterally announced in 1899 that Chinese trade would be open to all nations.

Boxer Rebellion -  A Chinese uprising against foreign influence, crushed by an international coalition, including U.S. troops.

Panama Canal - Built by the U.S. (1904–1914) after supporting Panamanian independence from Colombia.

Dollar Diplomacy - The Taft administration’s policy of encouraging American bankers to aid debt-plagued governments in Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua.

Roosevelt Corollary - President Theodore Roosevelt announced in what was essentially a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that the United States could intervene militarily to prevent interference from European powers in the Western Hemisphere.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) – Conflict between Russia and Japan over territory in Manchuria. The U.S. mediated peace talks (Treaty of Portsmouth), increasing American influence in Asia. mediated by Theodore Roosevelt.

Puerto Rico – Acquired by the U.S. in the Spanish-American War (1898). Granted U.S. citizenship under the Jones Act (1917), but remains an unincorporated U.S. territory.

Moral Diplomacy - Foreign policy proposed by President Woodrow Wilson, emphasizing the promotion of democracy, human rights, and self-determination instead of military intervention or economic pressure. It opposed imperialism and led to U.S. interventions in Latin America, Mexico, and the Caribbean to support democratic governments. However, Wilson still used military force, such as in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, contradicting his ideals.

Pragmatism - William James founded this philosophy in the early 1900s. Pragmatists believed that ideas gained their validity not from their inherent truth, but from their social consequences and practical application.

Muckrakers - Writers who exposed corruption and abuses in politics, business, meat-packing, child labor, and more, primarily in the first decade of the twentieth century; their popular books and magazine articles spurred public interest in progressive reform.

Triangle Shirtwaist fire - A deadly factory fire in New York City that killed 146 garment workers, mostly young immigrant women, due to locked exits and unsafe conditions. The tragedy led to widespread outrage and resulted in major workplace safety reforms, including fire safety codes, labor laws, and stronger union support. It highlighted the need for government intervention in labor conditions.

16th Amendment - Legalized the federal income tax

17th Amendment - Shifted the election of U.S. senators from state legislatures to direct popular vote. It was a key Progressive reform aimed at reducing corruption and the influence of political machines. Before this, state legislators often selected senators based on bribery and special interests rather than public opinion. This amendment made the government more democratic and increased voter influence over national policies.

18th Amendment - Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the U.S., leading to the Prohibition Era (1920–1933). It was influenced by the Temperance Movement, which argued that alcohol caused social problems like crime and poverty. However, Prohibition led to a rise in organized crime (e.g., Al Capone), bootlegging, and speakeasies. It was ultimately repealed by the 21st Amendment (1933) due to its failure to curb alcohol consumption and the difficulty of enforcement.

Square Deal - President Roosevelt used his executive position to promote his progressive Square Deal program, which included regulating trusts, arbitrating the 1902 coal strike, regulating the railroads, and cleaning up the meat and drug industries. President Taft continued to bust trusts and reform the tariff, but Republican party bosses, reflecting their big business interests, ensured that the tariff reductions were too few to satisfy the progressives in the party. Roosevelt decided to seek the Republican presidential nomination in 1912 because of progressives’ disillusionment with Taft.

Mann-Elkins Act - Expanded the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad rates and telecommunication industries (telephones, telegraphs, etc.). This law strengthened federal government control over monopolies and was a key reform under President William Howard Taft. It aimed to prevent price discrimination and unfair business practices that hurt farmers and small businesses.

The Jungle Upton Sinclair - A muckraking novel published in 1906 that exposed horrifying conditions in the U.S. meatpacking industry, including unsanitary practices, contaminated meat, and worker exploitation. While Sinclair intended to highlight labor issues, the public focused on the food safety crisis. This led to the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), which established the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) to regulate food and medicine safety.

“Bull Moose” Party - In the 1912 election, Theodore Roosevelt was unable to secure the Republican nomination for president. He left the Republican party and formed his own party of progressive Republicans, called the “Bull Moose” party. Roosevelt and Taft split the Republican vote, which allowed Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win

NAACP - The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded by W.E.B. Du Bois and other activists to fight racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement. It played a major role in challenging Jim Crow laws, advocating for anti-lynching legislation, and supporting court cases like Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The NAACP remains a leading civil rights organization today.

19th Amendment - Granted women the right to vote, a victory for the women’s suffrage movement led by activists such as Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. Women had been advocating for suffrage since the Seneca Falls Convention (1848). The amendment was passed after women’s contributions during WWI, as their work in factories, as nurses, and in other war efforts demonstrated their equality. However, many Black women in the South still faced voter suppression despite the amendment.

Lusitania - A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat (submarine) off the coast of Ireland. The attack killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, fueling anti-German sentiment in the U.S. While the ship was carrying weapons, its sinking was seen as a violation of international law. The event pushed the U.S. closer to joining WWI, though it did not immediately declare war.

Preparedness - advocated for military expansion and readiness in case the U.S. entered World War I. It led to the National Defense Act (1916) and Naval Act (1916), strengthening the army and navy despite opposition from isolationists. When the U.S. joined WWI in 1917, these efforts helped ensure a quick and effective mobilization.

Zimmerman Telegram - A secret diplomatic message from Germany to Mexico, intercepted by Britain. Germany promised Mexico the territories of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico if it joined the war against the U.S. The telegram outraged Americans and, combined with unrestricted submarine warfare, was a key factor in the U.S. declaring war on Germany in April 1917.

Bolsheviks - Under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, this Marxist party led the November 1917 revolution against the newly formed provisional government in Russia. After seizing control, the Bolsheviks negotiated a peace treaty with Germany, the Treaty of BrestLitovsk, and ended their participation in World War I.

Fourteen Points - President Woodrow Wilson’s 1918 plan for peace after World War I; at the Versailles peace conference, however, he failed to incorporate all of the points into the treaty.

League of Nations - Organization of nations to mediate disputes and avoid war established after the First World War as part of the Treaty of Versailles; President Woodrow Wilson’s “Fourteen Points’’ speech to Congress in 1918 proposed the formation of the league

Henry Cabot Lodge - He was the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee who favored limiting America’s involvement in the League of Nations’ covenant and sought to amend the Treaty of Versailles.

Self-determination - The right of a people or nation to choose their own political status and freely determine their own form of government. It was a key principle promoted by Woodrow Wilson during and after World War I, particularly in his Fourteen Points speech, advocating for the independence and sovereignty of nations, especially in Europe and colonies. This idea influenced the creation of the League of Nations and later movements for independence in colonized regions around

Reparations - As a part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was required to confess its responsibility for the First World War and make payments to the victors for the entire expense of the war. These two requirements created a deep bitterness among Germans.

Mobilization - the process of preparing a country’s military, economy, and society for war. During World War I and World War II, mobilization involved the rapid expansion of the military through drafts, the conversion of civilian industries to wartime production, and securing necessary resources. In the U.S., mobilization was critical to ensure that the country could effectively fight on multiple fronts, and it required widespread public support through war bonds, rationing, and other government initiatives.

Liberty Bonds - war bonds sold to U.S. citizens during World War I and World War II to help finance military operations and wartime expenditures. These bonds were promoted as a patriotic way for Americans to support the war effort, and they raised billions of dollars. The U.S. government used the money to fund military supplies, pay for soldiers’ expenses, and support the overall war effort. The bonds also helped shape the country’s wartime economy and created a sense of unity and national purpose.

Spanish Flu - Unprecedentedly lethal influenza epidemic of 1918 that killed more than 22 million people worldwide.

Schenck v United States - a landmark Supreme Court case that tested the limits of free speech during wartime. Charles Schenck, a socialist, was arrested for distributing pamphlets that opposed the draft during World War I. The Court upheld his conviction, ruling that speech could be restricted if it posed a "clear and present danger" to national security. This case established the precedent that free speech could be limited in situations where it might endanger public safety or interfere with war efforts, such as during wartime.

Selective Service Act - authorized the U.S. government to draft men into military service during World War I. It required all men aged 21 to 30 (later extended to 18 to 45) to register for the draft. Over 2.8 million men were drafted, and this act played a crucial role in building the U.S. Army and ensuring that the country had enough soldiers to fight on the frontlines. The Selective Service Act was also used in later conflicts like World War II and the Vietnam War.

The Red Scare (1st) - Fear among many Americans after the First World War of Communists in particular and noncitizens in general, a reaction to the Russian Revolution, mail bombs, strikes, and riots.

Palmer Raids - a series of government actions led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to arrest and deport suspected radicals, communists, and anarchists during the Red Scare following World War I. The raids were sparked by fears of leftist revolutionary movements and labor unrest, including the 1919 strikes and the Russian Revolution. Thousands of individuals were arrested without proper evidence, leading to widespread criticism of the violation of civil liberties and overreach by the government.

Nativism - Anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feeling in the 1830s through the 1850s; the largest group was New York’s Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, which expanded into the American, or Know-Nothing, party in 1854. In the 1920, there was a surge in nativism as Americans grew to fear immigrants who might be political radicals. In response, new strict immigration regulations were established

Sacco & Vanzetti - two Italian immigrants and anarchists who were convicted of murder and robbery in Massachusetts in 1920, despite controversial evidence and claims of an unfair trial. Many believed they were targeted for their political beliefs and immigrant status rather than for actual evidence of their guilt. Their execution in 1927 became a symbol of social injustice and led to protests worldwide, highlighting issues of nativism and racial prejudice in the U.S. legal system.

The Great Migration - the mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West between 1916 and the 1970s. Driven by the search for better economic opportunities, escape from racial segregation, and violence in the South, African Americans settled in cities like Chicago, New York, and Detroit. The migration had profound effects on urban culture, labor markets, and the civil rights movement, as it marked the beginning of a more prominent African American presence in northern cities and communities.

Fundamentalism - Anti-modernist Protestant movement started in the early twentieth century that proclaimed the literal truth of the Bible; the name came from The Fundamentals, published by conservative leaders.

Traditionalism - a cultural, political, or religious movement that emphasizes the preservation of traditional values, customs, and practices. In the context of the early 20th century, traditionalism was often seen in opposition to the modernist movements of the time, such as progressivism, secularism, and the Roaring Twenties’ cultural shifts. It was particularly prominent in rural America, where many sought to preserve religious values, family structures, and resistance to changes in gender roles, immigration, and urbanization.

Assembly Line Process - a manufacturing process in which a product is assembled in a sequential manner as it moves along a conveyor belt. Henry Ford revolutionized the automobile industry by implementing the assembly line in the production of the Model T in 1913, drastically increasing efficiency and reducing production costs. The innovation made goods more affordable for the general public and greatly influenced mass production techniques in various industries beyond automobiles.

Art Deco - a popular design style that emerged in the 1920s and reached its peak during the 1930s. Characterized by geometric shapes, bold colors, and luxurious materials, Art Deco was used in architecture, fashion, interior design, and visual arts. It was seen as a reflection of modernity and progress, embracing technological advancements and industrial design, with famous examples like the Chrysler Building in New York and the Streamline Moderne style in architecture. Art Deco was also popular in Hollywood films and consumer products during the Roaring Twenties.

Modernism - As both a mood and movement, modernism recognized that Western civilization had entered an era of change. Traditional ways of thinking and creating art were being rejected and replaced with new understandings and forms of expression.

Scopes Trial - a legal case in Dayton, Tennessee, in which high school teacher John Scopes was charged with teaching evolution, violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of evolution in public schools. The trial became a media spectacle, with William Jennings Bryan representing the prosecution (arguing for biblical creationism) and Clarence Darrow defending Scopes (arguing for academic freedom and scientific thought). Though Scopes was convicted, the trial highlighted the growing cultural divide between modernist and traditionalist views and is seen as a pivotal moment in the debate between science and religion in education.

“Scarface” Al Capone - He was the most successful gangster of the Prohibition era whose Chicago-based criminal empire included bootlegging, prostitution, and gambling.

Harlem Renaissance - African American literary and artistic movement of the 1920s and 1930s centered in New York City’s Harlem district; writers Langston Hughes, Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen were among those active in the movement.

“Jazz Age” - A term coined by F. Scott Fitzgerald to characterize the spirit of rebellion and spontaneity that spread among young Americans during the 1920s, epitomized by the emergence of jazz music and the popularity of carefree, improvisational dances, such as the Charleston and the Black Bottom.

“Return to Normalcy” - In the 1920 presidential election, Republican nominee Warren G. Harding campaigned on the promise of a “return to normalcy,” which would mean a return to conservative values and a turning away from President Wilson’s internationalism.

Great Depression - Worst economic depression in American history; it was spurred by the stock market crash of 1929 and lasted until the Second World War.

Black Tuesday - occurred on October 29, 1929, marked the start of the Great Depression. It was the day when the stock market crash reached its peak, wiping out $14 billion in stock value. This collapse came after months of speculation and overinvestment in stocks, and it triggered a nationwide economic collapse, leading to massive unemployment, poverty, and the eventual failure of banks and businesses. The crash devastated the American economy, leading to years of hardship during the 1930s Great Depression.

Federal Reserve - he central banking system of the United States, established in 1913 to provide a more stable financial system. Its primary functions include regulating the money supply, controlling inflation, and ensuring the stability of the banking system. The Fed also has the authority to set interest rates, which can influence economic activity and employment. The Federal Reserve played a significant role in responding to the Great Depression and managing the 2008 financial crisis.

Bonus Army/Bonus March - a group of veterans of World War I who marched on Washington, D.C., in 1932 to demand early payment of a promised bonus for their military service. The government had promised veterans bonuses in 1924 to be paid in 1945, but due to the Great Depression, they sought to receive their money immediately. The Bonus Marchers set up camp in the capital, and their protest turned violent when the U.S. Army, under General Douglas MacArthur, forcibly evicted them. The event fueled public anger toward the Hoover administration for its handling of the economic crisis.

RFC (Reconstruction Finance Corporation) - Federal program established in 1932 under President Herbert Hoover to loan money to banks and other institutions to help them avert bankruptcy.

19th Amendment - Granted women the right to vote

21st Amendment - Repealed prohibition on the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages, effectively nullifying the Eighteenth Amendment.

Three Rs - central goals of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal during the Great Depression: Relief – Immediate aid for those suffering the effects of the depression (e.g., through public works projects, unemployment benefits, and bank closures). Recovery – Programs aimed at helping the economy recover by boosting employment and industry (e.g., the New Deal agencies, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)). Reform – Long-term changes to prevent another depression, such as the creation of Social Security and regulations on the stock market (Securities and Exchange Commission, SEC).

First New Deal - Franklin D. Roosevelt’s campaign promise, in his speech to the Democratic National Convention of 1932, to combat the Great Depression with a “new deal for the American people;’’ the phrase became a catchword for his ambitious plan of economic programs.

Fireside Chats - a series of radio addresses by President Franklin D. Roosevelt from 1933 to 1944, designed to communicate directly with the American public. These informal broadcasts aimed to explain his policies, especially those related to the New Deal and his efforts to address the Great Depression. Roosevelt's calming, conversational tone helped reassure Americans and build public confidence in his leadership. The chats were a major communication tool in reshaping the relationship between the president and the people.

AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act - 1933) - Aimed to boost agricultural prices by reducing surplus. The government paid farmers to cut production of certain crops. Declared unconstitutional in 1936, but later revised.

PWA (Public Works Administration - 1933) - Funded large-scale infrastructure projects like bridges, dams, schools, and hospitals to create jobs and stimulate the economy.

CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps - 1933) - Provided jobs for young men (ages 18–25) in environmental conservation projects like planting trees, building parks, and preventing soil erosion.

TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority - 1933) - Built dams, power plants, and improved infrastructure in the Tennessee Valley to provide electricity, flood control, and economic development to rural areas.

NRA (National Recovery Administration - 1933) - Encouraged industries to adopt fair wages, hours, and prices through voluntary codes. Declared unconstitutional in 1935.

SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission - 1934) - Created to regulate the stock market, prevent fraud, and restore investor confidence after the stock market crash of 1929.

FHA (Federal Housing Administration - 1934) - Provided mortgage insurance to lenders, making homeownership more affordable and stabilizing the housing market.

CWA (Civil Works Administration - 1933-1934) - A temporary jobs program that provided work in construction and maintenance of public projects, such as roads and schools, during the winter of 1933-34.

WPA (Works Progress Administration - 1935) - One of the largest New Deal programs, it created millions of jobs in public works, arts, theater, and writing projects, including building roads, bridges, and public buildings.

FDIC - Established as part of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt to restore public confidence in the banking system during the Great Depression. The FDIC provides insurance to depositors in member banks, ensuring that if a bank fails, depositors’ savings (up to $250,000 per account) are protected. This helped prevent bank runs, where panicked customers would rush to withdraw their money, and stabilized the financial system. The FDIC continues to play a vital role in maintaining trust in the U.S. banking system today.

Social Security Act - a key piece of legislation enacted during the New Deal to provide financial assistance and security to elderly, unemployed, and disabled Americans. The Act created the Social Security program, which established a system of retirement benefits for workers and a federal safety net for those unable to work due to disability or old age. It also provided unemployment insurance and aid to dependent children. The Social Security Act remains one of the most significant pieces of social welfare legislation in U.S. history, laying the foundation for the country’s modern social safety net.

Share-the-Wealth Program - Huey Long, a critic of President Roosevelt, offered this program as an alternative to the New Deal. The program proposed to confiscate large personal fortunes, which would be used to guarantee every poor family a cash grant of $5,000 and every worker an annual income of $2,500. Under this program, Long promised to provide pensions, reduce working hours, pay veterans’ bonuses, and ensures a college education to every qualified student.

Second New Deal - To rescue his New Deal program form judicial and political challenges, President Roosevelt launched a second phase of the New Deal in 1935. He was able to convince Congress to pass key pieces of legislation including the National Labor Relations act and Social Security Act. Roosevelt called the latter the New Deal’s “supreme achievement” and pensioners started receiving monthly checks in 1940.

Court Reorganization Plan - proposed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 to increase the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 15. Roosevelt wanted to appoint justices who would support his New Deal programs, which had faced resistance from a conservative majority on the Court. The proposal was controversial and met with widespread criticism, as many viewed it as an attempt to undermine the judicial independence of the Court. Although the plan was never enacted, it led to a shift in the Court’s stance on New Deal legislation.

Fair Labor Standards Act - a New Deal reform aimed at improving conditions for American workers. The Act established key labor protections, including the minimum wage, the 40-hour workweek, and the abolition of child labor for certain industries. The FLSA marked a significant step in the federal government's role in regulating labor conditions and ensuring a basic standard of living for workers, providing long-term protections that continue today.

Dust Bowl - Great Plains counties where millions of tons of topsoil were blown away from parched farmland in the 1930s; massive migration of farm families followed.

Okies - the farmers and their families who migrated from the Dust Bowl region of the central United States, particularly Oklahoma, during the Great Depression. Seeking better economic opportunities, many Okies headed west to places like California in search of work on farms and in agriculture. The migration became a symbol of the hardships of the Dust Bowl, where devastating droughts and dust storms ruined crops. John Steinbeck's novel, The Grapes of Wrath, is a famous literary portrayal of the Okie experience.

Indian Reorganization Act - passed in 1934 as part of the New Deal to reverse the policy of assimilation and land allotment that had been imposed on Native Americans by earlier policies like the Dawes Act. The Act sought to promote self-governance, tribal sovereignty, and the recovery of tribal lands. It encouraged Native American tribes to organize their own governments and regain control over their affairs, although the law's impact varied across different tribes.

Kellogg-Briand Pact - an international agreement in which 15 countries, including the United States, France, and Germany, agreed to renounce war as a means of resolving conflicts. The Pact was initially seen as a hopeful step toward world peace, but it lacked any mechanisms for enforcement, making it ineffective in preventing the rise of militarism in the following decades. The Kellogg-Briand Pact was part of a broader movement during the Interwar period for international diplomacy and peace efforts but ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II.

Dawes Plan - a loan agreement arranged in 1924 to help Germany pay its reparations from World War I under the Treaty of Versailles. The plan, developed by American banker Charles G. Dawes, involved the U.S. lending Germany money to stabilize its economy, which would then allow Germany to make annual reparations payments to the Allied countries. The plan helped ease Germany's economic crisis in the 1920s but ultimately failed when the Great Depression worsened the global economy, and reparations were suspended in 1931.

Good Neighbor Policy - Proclaimed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in his first inaugural address in 1933, it sought improved diplomatic relations between the United States and its Latin American neighbors.

Fascism - Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian political ideology that emphasizes strong, centralized control, nationalism, and the suppression of opposition. It often involves dictatorial leadership, militarism, and the belief in the superiority of one’s nation or race. Fascist governments typically reject democracy and prioritize the state over individual freedoms.

Nazi Party - The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, was a far-right political group in Germany that ruled from 1933 to 1945. The party promoted extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and the idea of Aryan racial superiority, leading to the outbreak of World War II and the Holocaust. It established a totalitarian regime that used propaganda, military force, and political repression to maintain power.

Isolationism - Isolationism is a foreign policy doctrine that advocates for a nation to remain apart from the political and military affairs of other countries. In the context of the U.S. during the early 20th century, it meant avoiding involvement in European conflicts, particularly World War I and World War II. Isolationists believed that the U.S. should focus on its own issues and avoid entangling alliances.

Neutrality Acts - a series of laws passed by the U.S. Congress in the 1930s to prevent the U.S. from being drawn into foreign conflicts. These laws prohibited arms sales, loans, and other forms of assistance to countries at war, aiming to keep the U.S. neutral as tensions grew in Europe and Asia. The acts were modified later during World War II as the U.S. became more involved in the conflict.

America First Committee - a non-interventionist organization that opposed U.S. involvement in World War II. Formed in 1940, it advocated for focusing on domestic issues and staying out of the war in Europe, arguing that American involvement would lead to unnecessary loss of life and resources. The committee had significant influence, with many prominent figures, including aviator Charles Lindbergh, supporting its cause.

Blitzkrieg - The German “lightening war” strategy used during the Second World War; the Germans invaded Poland, France, Russia, and other countries with fast-moving, well-coordinated attacks using aircraft, tanks, and other armored vehicles, followed by infantry.

Cash and Carry - part of the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, allowing belligerent nations to purchase arms and supplies from the U.S. as long as they paid cash and transported the goods themselves. This policy was designed to aid Allied nations, especially Britain, without directly involving the U.S. in foreign conflicts. It was a shift from previous laws that prohibited such trade, further aligning the U.S. with the Allied cause before officially entering World War II.

Lend-Lease Act - Permitted the United States to lend or lease arms and other supplies to the Allies, signifying increasing likelihood of American involvement in the Second World War.

Pearl Harbor - the surprise military attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii by the Japanese on December 7, 1941. The attack led to the United States' formal entry into World War II, as it prompted Congress to declare war on Japan the following day. The assault resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of U.S. military assets, catalyzing America's involvement in both the Pacific and European theaters of the war.

War Production Board (WPB) - a U.S. government agency created during World War II to oversee the conversion of civilian industries to war production. It coordinated the production of war materials, including weapons, vehicles, and other supplies, ensuring that the military had the necessary resources to fight. The WPB played a crucial role in mobilizing the American economy for total war and helped significantly increase the output of war-related goods.

Manhattan Project - a secret U.S. government research and development project during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It brought together scientists, engineers, and military personnel to develop atomic bombs, culminating in the successful tests at the Trinity site in 1945. The project played a pivotal role in ending the war, as atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Officer of War Information - a U.S. government agency established during World War II to coordinate and disseminate propaganda to support the war effort. It oversaw the production of wartime posters, radio broadcasts, and films to boost morale, encourage enlistment, and promote public support for the war. The OWI played a key role in shaping public opinion and maintaining national unity during the conflict.

Women’s Army Corps - During the Second World War, the increased demand for labor shook up old prejudices about gender roles in workplace and in the military. Nearly 200,000 women served in the Women’s Army Corps or its naval equivalent, Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES).

Smith v. Allwright - a 1944 U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that it was unconstitutional for the Texas Democratic Party to exclude African Americans from voting in primary elections. The decision reinforced the principle that political parties, when operating as public entities, could not discriminate based on race, marking a significant victory in the Civil Rights Movement.

Tuskegee Airmen - During the Second World War, African Americans in the armed forces usually served in segregated units. African American pilots were trained at a separate flight school in Tuskegee, Alabama, and were known as Tuskegee Airmen.

Braceros - a labor agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, established in 1942, that allowed Mexican agricultural workers (braceros) to temporarily work in the United States during World War II. The program was designed to fill labor shortages in agriculture and other industries as many U.S. workers were enlisted in the military. Despite the program’s promise, it was often criticized for poor working conditions and exploitation of the workers.

Korematsu v. U.S. - a 1944 Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II as a wartime necessity. Fred Korematsu, who refused to comply with the internment order, challenged the constitutionality of the internment camps. The decision was controversial, and later, in 1988, the U.S. government officially apologized and provided reparations to surviving internees.

“Rosie the Riveter” - a cultural icon and symbol of female empowerment during World War II, representing women who worked in industrial jobs traditionally held by men. The image, depicted in posters and advertisements, encouraged women to take up roles in factories, shipyards, and other essential wartime industries. It reflected the changing role of women in the workforce during the war and the lasting impact of their contributions on post-war gender roles.

D-Day - June 6, 1944, when an Allied amphibious assault landed on the Normandy coast and established a foothold in Europe from which Hitler’s defenses could not recover

Battle of Midway - fought in June 1942, was a decisive naval battle between the United States and Japan during World War II. The U.S. Navy, with the help of codebreakers, ambushed and destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers, significantly weakening Japan’s naval power. This victory marked a turning point in the Pacific War, shifting the balance of naval power in favor of the Allies.

Island Hopping - a military strategy used by the Allies in the Pacific during World War II, aimed at bypassing heavily fortified Japanese islands and capturing strategically important ones. The strategy allowed Allied forces to gradually move closer to Japan, cutting off Japanese supply lines and weakening their defenses. It was a key component of the eventual Allied victory in the Pacific theater.

Kamikaze - the Japanese suicide pilots who deliberately crashed their planes, often loaded with explosives, into Allied ships during World War II. This tactic, which emerged in the later stages of the war, was driven by the belief that it was better to die for the emperor than to surrender. Kamikaze attacks caused significant damage to Allied naval forces, especially during battles like the Battle of Leyte Gulf and the Battle of Okinawa.

Nagasaki & Hiroshima - the two Japanese cities that the United States bombed with atomic bombs in August 1945, bringing about the end of World War II. Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki on August 9, causing massive destruction and loss of life. These bombings led to Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945, though the ethical and moral implications of the attacks remain highly debated.

USS Missouri - the U.S. battleship where the formal surrender of Japan took place on September 2, 1945, officially ending World War II. The Japanese delegation signed the instrument of surrender aboard the ship, anchored in Tokyo Bay. The Missouri became a symbol of the Allied victory and was later preserved as a museum ship.

Casablanca Conference - held in January 1943, was a meeting between President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Casablanca, Morocco. The conference was notable for the decision to demand "unconditional surrender" from the Axis powers, signaling that the Allies would accept nothing less than total victory. It also laid the groundwork for the Allied invasion of Italy and set the stage for future military and political strategy in World War II.

Yalta Conference - Meeting of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at a Crimean resort to discuss the postwar world on February 4–11, 1945; Soviet leader Joseph Stalin claimed large areas in eastern Europe for Soviet domination.

The United Nations - established in 1945 after World War II with the goal of promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts. It replaced the League of Nations and consists of various specialized agencies and member states that work together on issues such as human rights, peacekeeping, and global development. The UN’s most notable body is the Security Council, responsible for maintaining international peace and security.

Atomic weapons - powerful bombs that derive their destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (splitting atoms) or fusion (combining atoms). First developed during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project, atomic bombs were used by the U.S. on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan’s surrender. These weapons have since become a key element in global security, with their development and potential use being a central issue in international relations, especially during the Cold War.