Information Literacy, Scholarship, Research, and Sources Vocabulary

Chapter Information

• This section covers chapter 1.2, focusing on literacy, scholarship, research, and sources.

Chapter 1 Objectives

• Explain the relationship between information literacy and scholarship.
• Outline the purpose and characteristics of scholarship, including scholarly works, original source materials, general scholarship types, and evaluation criteria.
• Describe how to prepare a research paper, covering topic selection, thesis statement development, source evaluation, and citation practices to avoid plagiarism.

Information Literacy

• Information literacy is the ability to find, evaluate, and utilize information to achieve goals.
• According to the American Library Association Presidential Committee (1989), information literate individuals know how to learn, understand knowledge organization, find information, and use it effectively.
• The internet and digital databases have made finding information easier but have also raised concerns about the legitimacy of sources.
• The definition of Information Literacy:
  • An ability to both determine the need for additional information and to find, evaluate, and use that information appropriately.

The Legitimacy of Sources

• The internet contains personal opinions, poorly researched ideas, inaccurate explanations, skewed data, and incorrectly cited materials.
• Even with widespread access to knowledge, discernment has become a valuable skill.
• The shift from encyclopedia entries written by professionals to wiki articles written by anyone has expanded access but blurred credibility.
• Good information consumers need perceptiveness and diligence to understand and utilize high-quality sources.
• Developing good information literacy habits in college ensures quality research for work or personal reasons and simplifies the research paper writing process.

Enhancing Information Literacy

• This section provides tools for enhancing information literacy and is divided into three parts:
  • Discerning between scholarly and non-scholarly sources, and evaluating source legitimacy.
  • Developing a research topic into a thesis statement and conducting research.
  • Understanding academic journal article organization, citing sources using professional citation styles, and avoiding plagiarism.

Understanding Scholarship

• Scholarship, for academics, refers to the research contributions made by professionals to a field of study.
• Students are expected to access, evaluate, and use this knowledge base when writing research papers.
• Undergraduate research develops information literacy skills, requiring students to understand and distinguish genuine scholarly works.

Scholarly vs. Non-Scholarly Works

• Scholarly sources are research-based and published in peer-reviewed or refereed publications.
• Research-based publications use and cite other research-based publications to refine scientific and academic knowledge.
• These publications are written for scholars and researchers, contributing to a field of study and referencing other scholarly articles as proof of legitimate research practices.
• Peer-reviewed or refereed publications have been reviewed and edited by scholars, experts, and editors before being published in established journals.
• Non-scholarly sources do not undergo a peer-review process and include books from commercial publishers, magazine or journal articles without review, and most online publications.
• These are generally written by non-experts, professionals without the need to reference materials, and organizations with a particular viewpoint.
• Scholarly Sources:
  • Research-based articles written by credentialed experts that have been published in peer-reviewed or refereed journals.

Original vs. Secondary Sources

• Original ideas can deteriorate over time if original source materials are not referenced.
• Scholars publish peer-reviewed articles to communicate their ideas and cite original articles in new peer-reviewed articles.
• Information can be lost through misinterpretation if scholars cite secondary sources without reading the original.
• Instructors prefer students to use original source materials to avoid misunderstandings.

Redefining Scholarship: Boyer's Model

• Boyer (1990) argued that distinct areas of scholarship better reflect scholars' roles and contributions in the modern era, moving beyond measuring scholarly value by the quantity and prestige of published research.
• Four types of scholarship:
  • Discovery: Original research contribution, landmark achievements, breakthrough scientific studies, or revolutionary ideas. Associated with figures like Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
  • Integration: Synthesizing or merging research-based ideas within or between fields of study, finding unique connections between otherwise separate ideas.
  • Application: Utilizing discovery and integration-based research to create new practical applications for real-world settings. It measures the usefulness of theoretical concepts in practical situations which improves lives.
  • Teaching: Improving information dissemination and education through research-based application of teaching methods, measurement of learning processes, and development of innovative pedagogies.

Criteria for Scholarly Works

• Finding peer-reviewed or refereed sources is the best method for distinguishing scholarly from non-scholarly work.
• Glassick et al. (2007) developed assessment criteria for scholarly works:
  • Clear goals: Explicit statement of realistic goals and objectives related to other works in the field.
  • Adequate preparation: References to other scholarly efforts, relevance to the field's advancement, and author expertise.
  • Appropriate methodology: Use of suitable scientific, critical, or statistical methods.
  • Significant results: Achievement of goals that contributes to the field's advancement.
  • Effective presentation: Professional appearance in style and organization, published in an appropriate academic journal.
  • Reflective critique: Critical thought using research, results, and feedback to inform the audience about the concept's benefits and limitations.

Undergraduate Research

• Undergraduates are expected to abide by scholarship rules through writing research papers.
• National organizations like AAC&U promote collaborative research between undergraduates and faculty.
• Undergraduate research primarily takes place in class assignments and projects, making it important to understand how to write an effective college-level research paper.

Preparing to Write Research Papers

• Deciding on a topic is the most critical part of the research process because a bad choice can make research difficult.

Research Topics and Questions

• Four steps to guide topic selection:
  • Brainstorming: Think of ideas by reviewing class materials, searching databases, or free-writing topic lists. Asking questions can help.
    • What is the range of topics available for the class?
    • Is there some aspect of the class that is of particular interest to you?
    • Do you have a personal issue, opinion, or goal that relates to that interest?
    • How can exploring this topic expand your interest and build your knowledge?
  • The goal is to align the topic with the class purpose and personal interest.
  • Brainstorming:
    • A mental process used to generate new ideas, develop creative solutions to problems, and access creative or spontaneous mental resources.

The Concept Tree

• Narrowing possibilities to a topic can be difficult, and a concept tree is a visual way to develop unique solutions or pare down ideas.
• Write the general topic at the top, list 3-5 subtopics below it, and continue branching out with more specific subtopics, asking questions about personal interests related to each.

Types of Research Papers

• Once a topic is chosen, decide on the writing approach: analytical or argumentative.
  • Analytical papers: Objective analysis of a topic, framing a research question to explore aspects and drawing conclusions using evidence; neutrality is required.
  • Argumentative papers: Taking a side on a debatable topic and using logical arguments and supporting source materials to persuade the audience.
  • Analytical Paper:
    • The neutral evaluation of a research topic that uses available evidence to analyze, explore, and provide an audience with balanced information on the thesis.
  • Argumentative Paper:
    • The subjective evaluation of a debatable research topic that uses available evidence to support a particular idea or position and persuade an audience to adopt the thesis.
• Both styles require detailed evaluation and legitimate source materials; the choice depends on course expectations, topic angles, and writer's interests.

Thesis Statements

• Develop a thesis statement: A single sentence that encapsulates the main ideas of the paper, providing a snapshot for the reader and guiding the writing process.
• Thesis Statement:
  • A single sentence that summarizes the main themes or ideas of an essay or research paper.
• Thesis statements are created after deciding the style.
• Two types of thesis statements: Basic, which directly announces the purpose, and dynamic, which indirectly conveys the purpose.
• Examples of basic analytical thesis statements:
  • "This paper seeks to provide evidence that…"
  • "The purpose of this paper is to investigate…"
  • "This paper will investigate the relationship between…"
• Examples of basic argumentative thesis statements:
  • "This paper argues that…"
  • "The debate on… will be assessed in regard to the evidence for…"
  • "The purpose of this paper is to show that… is, in fact, a consequence of…"
• Two examples of dynamic thesis statements:
  • "Future government healthcare initiatives would benefit from examining how the failed projects launched by previous U.S. administrations has directly influenced our modern interpretation of healthcare reform."
  • "In a culture of widespread acceptance of pharmaceuticals, recent scientific evidence is beginning to shed light on the devastating social consequences of its misuse and abuse."

Research Strategies: Finding Sources

• Begin with the Research Question and Thesis Statement
  • Choosing sources requires balance: not too broad (too many sources) or too narrow (too few).
  • A thoughtful approach to devising a research question—brainstorming, using a concept tree, choosing a style, and developing a thesis statement—is important.
  • A solid thesis statement identifies relevant information, making the research process easier.
• Requires using information technology efficiently, identifying the main ideas of a research paper, and choosing credible sources.

Using Information Technology

• Research typically starts with online databases, but there's a learning curve.
• Avoid relying exclusively on popular search results; working with library databases is more effective.
• University library search engines offer advanced features to refine searches and navigate catalogs.

Identify Main Ideas

• Use keywords related to the main topic and subtopics from the thesis statement.
• With print materials, use the table of contents and index for keyword searches.
• With online databases, use keywords to refine the search.
• List additional keywords to stay focused.

Choose Credible Sources

• It's easier to distinguish between credible and non-credible sources when professors specify materials to include or exclude.
• Use peer-reviewed or original source materials.
• In academia, using peer-reviewed and original source materials is a best practice, but checking with the professor is suggested.

Research Strategies: Evaluating Sources

• Evaluate source materials and make judgments about their value and credibility.

Accuracy

• Accurate sources can be verified elsewhere, providing citations like a reference list.
• Cross-reference materials for accuracy and new insights.

Authority

• Determine the credentials of the author and publication.
• Check if the author is an expert and if the publication is peer-reviewed.

Audience

• Intended audience determines a source's credibility.
• College-level papers typically require academic sources over popular ones, and original sources over secondary ones.
• Popular books often lack clear references to original source materials, and popular magazine articles are editorial or journalistic rather than scientific.

Objectivity

• Scientific evidence should be objective, with impartial documentation.
• It's important to consider bias, cross-referencing materials and looking at author credentials.

Currency

• There are no clear lines to draw on the value of newer and older publications.
• Some old sources remain definitive, while others have not aged well and depends on the field of study.
• Research Paper Process:
  • Brainstorm Broad Topics of Interest
  • Narrow Topic with Concept Tree
  • Select Analytical or Argumentative Perspective
  • Thesis Statement (Basic or Dynamic)
  • Find Sources Using Keywords
  • Evaluate Sources
    • Accuracy
    • Authority
    • Audience
    • Objectivity
    • Currency
  • Select Sources
  • Refine Thesis Statement

Research Process, Citations, and Plagiarism

• Scientific research papers are structured into sections to ensure consistency:
  • Title Page
  • Abstract
  • Introduction or Literature Review
  • Methods or Procedures
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • References
• The Table below summarizes the organization of journal articles.

Description of Each Section

• Abstract: Brief synopsis of the article's purpose, methods, results, and conclusions, which includes reference information.
• Introduction/Literature Review: Provides background information on relevant studies, research direction, defines terms, and provides a synopsis.
• Method: Explains the design and methods used, including research participants, questionnaires, and data collection procedures.
• Results: Examines data with statistics, graphs, and tables for readers to evaluate the research approach and conclusions.
• Discussion: Translates results into a practical explanation, connecting the hypothesis with the results and exploring the research's impact, limitations, and future research ideas.
• References: Provides complete information on all citations used in the article.

Academic Research Papers: Citations

• Scholarly works require appropriate citations to ensure credibility and give credit.
• Citation formats and rules vary by professional organization.
• Three major professional styles:
  • APA Style:
    • Created by the American Psychological Association, widely used in social sciences and sometimes applied and natural sciences.
    • Uses parenthetical references with author names, publication dates, and page numbers (e.g., Smith, 2016, p. 6); no footnotes or endnotes.
  • MLA Style:
    • Created by the Modern Language Association, generally used in humanities.
    • Uses parenthetical references with author names and page numbers (e.g., Smith 6); no publication dates, footnotes, or endnotes.
  • Chicago Style:
    • Created by the University of Chicago Press, primary used in humanities, some social sciences, and many non-academic publications.
    • Emphasizes footnotes or endnotes; bibliography page at the end.

Academic Research Papers: Plagiarism

• Plagiarism:
  • The unauthorized use, theft, or misrepresentation of another's original work as one's own.
• Plagiarism is a significant ethical issue in higher education with serious academic penalties.
• Researchers must give credit where due by accurately citing source materials.
• Concepts or ideas from published academic sources must be cited, except for common knowledge.
• Copying text or quotes verbatim without citation is unethical and illegal.
• Students should use available guides to avoid unintentional plagiarism.
• Avoiding plagiarism requires diligence, following academic integrity rules, and keeping up with research paper sources.

Rules:

• Note author names, dates, titles, and publications during research sessions.
• Avoiding plagiarism is every student's responsibility, with key rules to follow:
  • Rule #1: Always credit a source when the information used is not your own and is not considered common knowledge.
  • Rule #2: Always credit a source when using text verbatim in order to provide a quote.
  • Rule #3: Summarizing or paraphrasing the ideas of another author always requires a citation and the resulting interpretation must be significantly different from the original text.
  • Rule #4: Use of the following sources must include a citation: books, articles, magazines, newspapers, speeches, interviews, websites, personal letters or correspondences, radio or television references, audio or digital recordings, electronic databases, etc.
  • Rule #5: Use of the following formats must include citations: text, quotes, stories, images, videos, graphs, tables, statistics, etc.
  • Rule #6: Submitting the same research paper in multiple classes or for multiple publications is considered self-plagiarism and is subject to the same rules and penalties used for plagiarizing the work of others.

Chapter 1.2 Summary

• Key points from Chapter 1.2:
  • Information literacy is a transferrable learning skill improved through research.
  • Scholarly works are research-based articles by credentialed experts in peer-reviewed journals.
  • Four scholarly research approaches: discovery-based, integration-based, application-based, and teaching-based.
  • Scholarly works include: clear goals, adequate preparation, appropriate methodology, significant results, effective presentations, and reflective critiques.