Untitled Flashcards Set

The Geographical Setting, Natural Features & Resources

Geographical Setting

Sparta was situated 200m above sea level

The city was nestled in a valley 12 km wide and 22 km long, near the Eurotas River. 

natural defenses included:

• Taygetus mountain range to the west

• Parnon mountain range to the east

• Arcadian mountains to the north

Natural Resources

Sparta's geographical location provided abundant resources:

1. Minerals and Stone:

• Limestone and marble quarried from nearby mountains

• Iron mines

1. Flora:

• Wood from nearby forests

• Crops such as barley, olives, and grapes

1. Fauna:

• Sheep and goats for wool, meat, and dairy

• Pigs for food and hide

• Horses for breeding

• Wild game like boars for hunting

• Bees for honey

Strabo, an ancient geographer, described Messenia as having "fertility greater than words can express" while noting that Laconia was "subject to earthquakes.

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Significant Sites

1. Sanctuary of Apollo

2. Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia

3. The Menelaion

4. Acropolis

Xenophon noted that "Sparta had simple but plentiful food available for its citizens," while Plutarch famously stated, "Sparta's young men were her walls, and the points of their spears were her frontiers

Social Structure & Political Organisation

The Great Rhetra

• The Great Rhetra was the foundational constitution of Sparta, believed to date from the 7th century BCE

It established the basic framework for Spartan government and society:

• Formed the basis of the Spartan constitution

• Attributed to Lycurgus, who allegedly received it from the Delphic Oracle

• Established key institutions like the Gerousia (council of elders)
  Defined the roles of kings, elders, and the citizen assembly

Lycurgus

• Considered the "legendary lawgiver of Sparta"

• Credited with establishing Sparta's eunomia (good order)

• Main sources: Plutarch, Herodotus, and Aristotle (written centuries later)

• Lycurgus issue

•  Historians doubt his existence

• The “Great Rhetra,” an oracle saying, is the essence of the reforms attributed to him.

• Plutarch recounts Lycurgus’ achievements but acknowledges the debate surrounding his existence.

• Aristotle dates him to 776 BC.

Key Reforms Attributed to Lycurgus

1. Creation of the Gerousia (28 elders plus 2 kings)

2. Redistribution of land

3. Replacement of gold and silver currency with iron

4. Establishment of the Spartan education system (Agoge)

5. Implementation of communal mess halls (syssitia)

6. Timing of reforms: Most likely 7th century BCE, but exact date uncertain

Roles & Privileges of the Two Kings:

Origins and Structure

• Dual kingship originated from the coalition of two tribes: Agiad and Eurypontid
  Two kings had equal power, but their roles were restricted over time
  Religious Roles

• Acted as priests of patron gods for their respective families (Zeus Lacedaemonios and Zeus Uranios)

• Appointed two pythioi to consult the Delphi oracle

• Held office as long as they maintained the pleasure of the gods

• sacrifices
  Military Roles

• One king led troops in battle while the other remained in Sparta

• Supreme commander-in-chief of the army during campaigns

• Right to declare war

Judicial Roles

• participating in debates

• By 5th century BC, judicial functions reduced to three areas:

• Adoption of children

• Matters pertaining to public highways
  Social Roles and Privileges

• Given best seats at religious festivals

• Received first seat and double portions at banquets

• Entitled to a percentage of spoils after successful military campaigns

• Death marked by 10 days of mourning

• Supervised maintenance of Spartan roads

THUCYDIDES → “In the first year of his reign, while he was making one of the official sacrifices on behalf of the state”

Government Structure:

Ephorate

The Ephorate was a body of five magistrates elected by the people, introduced around the 7th century BC

.Purpose and Powers:

• Control the King and Gerousia

• Chief administrators and executives of the state

• Advise the kings

• Call meetings of the Gerousia and Ekklesia

• Receive foreign ambassadors

• Oversee the Agoge (training and education)

• Authority to arrest and imprison a king

Composition and Nature:

• Five ephors elected annually

• Seen as a democratic element in the constitution

Historical perspective

• Xenophon → “Ephors have the right to inflict punishment at will, to require immediate payment of fines,..... But like tyrants.. They punish an offender as soon as the offence is detected”

Aristotle → “For this post has total control over the greatest of Spartan affairs but the Ephors come from the whole people” →

Gerousia

The Gerousia was the council of elders in Sparta, consisting of 28 members plus the two kings

.Purpose and Powers:

• Prepare and debate bills for the assembly (probouleutic body)

• Advise kings on political matters

• Propose laws to the Spartan assembly (Apella)

• Review and potentially veto assembly decisions

• Pronounce sentences of death or exile

Composition and Selection:

• 30 members total (28 elected plus two kings)

• Members had to be male and at least 60 years old

• Elected by the assembly

• Membership was for life

Historical Perspective:

• Praised by Xenophon for testing "noble qualities of the spirit"

• Described by Plutarch as consisting of "the best and most deserving men past sixty years old"

Ekklesia

The Ekklesia was the Spartan assembly, open to all male citizens over 30 years old

.Purpose and Powers:

• Elect ephors, elders of the Gerousia, and other magistrates

• Pass measures put before it

• Make decisions about peace and war

• Resolve problems regarding kingship

• Vote by acclamation (yes or no only)

Composition:

• All male Spartan citizens over 30 years old

Historical Note:

Thucydides described the Ekklesia's decision to go to war against Athens in 431 BC

Social Structure:

Social structure: Spartiates

• Aka ‘homoi’ meaning equals

• Full (and only) citizens of Sparta (from age 30)

• Characterised by subordination of the individual, self-discipline and maintenance of the state  

• Members of the military or the Agoge - the army education system 

• No economic role - military was only profession

Social structure: Perioeci (dwellers around)

• Craftsmen/Manufacturers

• Manufactureres and traders responsible for the Spartan economy

  • Some were also farmers, fishermen and ship builders

• Allied with the Spartans 

SOURCE → Herodotus tells us “they could be conscripted into the Spartan army when numbers were low” 

Social structure: Helots 

• State-owned serfs

• Responsible for agriculture

• Had to serve their masters

• Could be conscripted 

• Treated poorly

• Uprisings and Revolts 

  • Treared as a serious threat to Sparta’s internal security

SOURCE → De.Ste Criox (PAGE 193 KNOXI): “state owned serfs” 

• In his discussion of the control of the helots he likeness the structure of society to “a bitter class war” where the spartiates and helots are at “opposite poles”

• The basic relationship between the Spartiartes and at any rate the Messenain Helots, however was on of fear and hatred on both sides” 

SOURCE →Thucydides IV: “Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precaution against the helots” 

Social structure: "inferiors" 

• Those rejected from the traditional social structure

• Divided into 4 groups

  • Patheniai: Children of unmarried Spartans

  • Mothakes: Non Spartan boys adopted as playmates

  • Neodamodeis: Helots freed for serving Sparta in battle

  • Hypomeiones: Also called ‘tresantes’ or ‘tremblers’, cowards.

The Spartan Army: Training (Agoge), Composition

• All Spartan males trained as soldiers; other occupations were forbidden.

Composition:

• Led by the king during campaigns,

• Equipped traditionally as hoplites with weapons and armor.

• The army at peak strength consisted of approximately 3,400 soldiers.

Training (Agoge):

• A rigorous military training system aimed at producing courageous and obedient soldiers from ages 7 to 20.

• Focused on discipline, survival skills, and instilling values of bravery and social conformity.

• Early childhood involved inspection and harsh upbringing.

Key Moments in Agoge:

• Birth: Elders inspected newborns; weak infants were abandoned.

• Age 7: Boys entered state custody, grouped into classes for training.

• Age 12: Training intensified; emphasis on combat and formations.

• Age 20: Attained manhood and became soldiers.

According to Xenophon the paidonomos had to administer sever whippings to the disobedient

‘There is a great difference between us and our opponents… in our educational systems. The spartans, from their earliest boyhood, are submitted to the most laborious training in courage’ - TH

Role and Status of Women: Land Ownership, Inheritance, Education

Education:

• Women received education at home, possibly including reading.

• All women participated in public physical exercise.

Land Ownership/Inheritance:

• Women legally owned property and managed their estates.

• Inherited kleroi, with some scholars attributing land ownership to the decline of Spartan society.

Land ownership: 

Agriculture:

• Helots, the subjugated population of Messenia and Lakonia, were critical to this system, producing agricultural goods that sustained the Spartan homoioi. 

• Plutarch describes:

Kleroi:

• The kleroi were parcels of land allocated to Spartan citizens by the state, intended to support both the homoioi and their Helot laborers. Each kleros produced enough food to sustain a Spartan family and contribute to the communal syssitia (mess halls). 

• Hodkinson, revealed tensions in maintaining equality among the Spartiate class (equality).

Helots:

• Helots, the subjugated population primarily from Messenia, were essential to Sparta's agrarian economy. They worked the kleroi and delivered a fixed portion of their produce to their Spartan masters. 

• This labor system allowed the homoioi to devote themselves entirely to military training. However, the reliance on Helot labor created constant tension, as evidenced by the regular suppression campaigns (e.g., krypteia) to prevent uprisings. 

• SOURCE  → Thucydides notes that the Helots’ population outnumbered the Spartans significantly, underscoring the fragility of this economic model.

Technology: 

Weapons:

• Iron weapons, crafted by the Perioikoi, were essential to the Spartan army.

Armour:

• Spartan armour, such as the hoplon shield and bronze cuirass, was also manufactured by the Perioikoi. The standardisation of military equipment ensured uniformity among the homoioi, reinforcing the collective identity of the Spartan army.

•  Xenophon notes that the Spartans were known for their simplicity and practicality in military gear,

Pottery:

• While not a major focus of Spartan society, pottery was produced by the Perioikoi for domestic use and limited trade.

Economic roles of the periokoi ('dwellers around') and helots

• The Perioikoi had their own laws and customs, could pursue any profession or trade they liked.

• They were the professionals, merchants, and craftsmen of Lacedaemon. The Perioikoi manufactured clothing and other goods, all the essential ingredients of a military dominant state. 

• Helots, on the other hand, were the primary agricultural laborers, ensuring the sustenance of Spartan citizens. Together, these groups formed the backbone of Spartan economic activity, enabling the homoioi to focus exclusively on military duties.

Economic exchange: 

Use of Iron Bars:

• Iron bars replaced gold and silver coinage in Sparta under Lycurgus. 

• This unique form of currency had no value outside Sparta, deliberately restricting trade and wealth accumulation. 

• SOURCE  → Plutarch highlights that this measure reduced the influence of foreign goods and luxuries, reinforcing Sparta’s self-sufficient economy and austere values. 

• Debate reflects broader tensions between Spartan austerity narratives and practical economic needs.

Trade:

• While Sparta’s disdain for commerce limited its engagement in trade, the Perioikoi facilitated necessary exchanges. 

• Coastal ports  for the export of agricultural goods, such as wine and olive oil, and the import of essential resources like metals and grain. 

• These transactions were addressing shortages without undermining Spartan self-sufficiency. 

SOURCE → Herodotus: notes that Sparta maintained limited trade relationships, underscoring its pragmatic but restricted approach to economic exchange.

Religion Death and Burial

Hyakinthia

• Purpose: Celebrated the death of Hyakinthus and honored Apollo

• Key Features:

• Choirs of boys singing praises to Apollo

• Processions, dancers, and chariot races

• Rituals involving sausages

• Mourning of Hyakinthus

• Significance: Reflected Spartan values of heroism and mourning for loss

• Evidence: Aristophanes references Spartan devotion to Apollo through scenes of singing and dancing

Karneia

• Purpose: Honored Apollo Karneios and the return of the Herakleidai

• Key Features:

• Athletic and musical contests

• Processions with model rafts

• Rituals of wool-garlanded runners

• Feasts in tent-like shelters

• Significance: Celebrated heroic deeds and military training, linked to Sparta's military-focused culture

• Evidence: Archaeological findings include horned carvings and coins depicting Apollo Karneios; written records by Sosibius and Theokritos mention the festival's reorganization and ram sacrifices

Gymnopaedia

• Purpose: Honored the fallen at the Battle of Thyrea

• Key Features:

• Five-day festival of gymnastics and dancing

• Morning performances by boys, afternoon by men, evening by elders

• Significance: Emphasized Spartan values of physical excellence and commemorated military prowess

• Evidence: References to young and old Spartans performing together, illustrating the interconnectedness of age groups

Artemis Orthia

• Purpose: Honored Artemis Orthia and served as an initiation rite

• Key Features:

• Initiation rite involving theft of cheeses

• Boys endured whippings during the ritual

• Significance: Demonstrated physical endurance and discipline, integral to Spartan values

• Evidence: Xenophon and Pausanias describe the whipping ritual and the priestess' role

Religious Sites

• Locations: Temple of Artemis Orthia, Temple of Athena of the Bronze House, sanctuaries on Sparta's outskirts, shrines at Amyclae and Menelaion

• Significance: Central to Spartan identity and societal structure, with each site serving specific devotional purposes

• Evidence: Archaeological remains and accounts from writers like Pausanias

Funerary Rites

• Practices:

• Simple pit graves for ordinary Spartans

• Elaborate ceremonies for kings

• Mourning period of 11 days

• Sacrifices on the 12th day

• Significance: Honored the deceased and sought divine favor, reflected Spartan pragmatism and communal mourning practices

• Evidence: Herodotus describes the wailing and elaborate funeral rites for Spartan kings and the cessation of public activities during mourning

Cultural and everyday life, including:

Art and Culture in Early Sparta:

Sculpture and Metalwork

• Stone sculptures:

• Bronze sculptures and vessels.

• Bronze :

• Herodotus mentions a large bronze bowl made as a gift for King Kroisos of Lydia

Painted Vessels

• Geometric designs with occasional figures.

• Animal and bird friezes

• Narrative scenes from Spartan mythology

The Arkesilas cup depicts King Arkeslisa II of Kyrene (650s BC)

Bone and Ivory Carving

• Over 200 ivory votive offerings at the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia

• A 24 cm ivory plaque from the 7th century BC

• Spartan ivory combs with animal designs

Architecture

Significant structures include the Amyklaion, Menelaion, and the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia

Writing and Literature

• Alkman: Wrote lyrical poems for choirs, suggesting a culturally sophisticated Sparta

• Tyrtaeus: Composed war songs praising bravery, cooperation, and teamwork

Greek Writers' Views of Sparta

• Herodotus (c.484-424 BCE): Documented Spartan military prowess but portrayed kings as tyrannical

• Thucydides (c.460-c.400 BCE): Wrote about the Peloponnesian War, attributing Spartan victory to Athenian mistakes

• Xenophon (c.430-354 BCE): Admired Sparta, wrote 'The Constitution of Lacedaemonians'

• Plutarch (46-199 CE): Wrote 'Life of Lycurgus' and collected Spartan 'Sayings'

Leisure Activities

• Athletics:

• Hunting:

• Equestrian sports:

• Banquets:

• Clothing and Appearance

• Spartiate clothing:

• Simple and austere, with red military cloaks

• Facial hair: Beards allowed, moustaches banned

• Women's clothing: Doric Peplos for formal wear, Chiton for everyday use

• Helot clothing: Dogskin caps and animal skins as humiliation

Food

• Black broth: Made of pork, vinegar, and blood

Plutarch notes, "The food they think most highly of is black broth"

Marriage Customs

• Men married in their 20s, women in their teens

• Dowries were provided despite being prohibited

• Abduction of the bride was a ritual practice