Learning & Study Strategies Overview
Learning & Study Strategies
Retrieval Practice
Definition: Actively recalling information strengthens memory.
Example: Quizzing yourself with flashcards instead of rereading notes.
Spaced Practice
Definition: Studying over time improves retention.
Example: Reviewing material every few days instead of cramming.
Interleaving
Definition: Mixing topics boosts learning.
Example: Alternating between history and psychology problems.
Concrete Examples
Definition: Specific examples clarify abstract ideas.
Example: Using a stereotype to explain confirmation bias.
Elaboration
Definition: Explaining ideas in your own words.
Example: “Neurons are like messengers that send signals through the brain.”
Metacognition Cycle
Definition: The process involving planning, monitoring, and evaluating your learning.
Example: “I’ll study vocab first, check recall, and adjust if I miss too many.”
Learning Cycle
Definition: Involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Example: Reading notes → storing in memory → recalling during a test.
Attention & Perception
Attention
Definition: Focused mental engagement.
Example: Listening to a lecture while ignoring phone notifications.
Inattentional Blindness
Definition: Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere.
Example: Not seeing a gorilla walk through a basketball game.
Change Blindness
Definition: Failing to notice changes in a visual scene.
Example: Not noticing a friend’s haircut after a long conversation.
Psychological Science
Psychological Science
Definition: Study of mind, brain, and behavior using empirical methods.
Example: Running experiments to test how sleep affects memory.
Confirmation Bias
Definition: Seeking information that supports one’s beliefs.
Example: Only watching news that supports your views.
Post-hoc Fallacy
Definition: Assuming causation from sequence.
Example: “I wore lucky socks and aced the test—must be the socks!”
Hindsight Bias
Definition: “I knew it all along” effect.
Example: Saying “I always knew it wouldn’t last” after a breakup.
Availability Heuristic
Definition: Judging likelihood based on ease of recall.
Example: Thinking plane crashes are common because they’re in the news.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
Definition: Low-ability people overestimate their competence.
Example: A beginner claiming to be an expert after one tutorial.
Foundations of Psychology
Philosophical Roots
Concepts include mind-body dualism and empiricism.
Example: Descartes believed mind and body were separate.
Experimental Psychology
Definition: Scientific study of behavior.
Example: Measuring reaction times in a lab.
Structuralism
Definition: Breaking consciousness into elements.
Example: Describing sensations when tasting chocolate.
Functionalism
Definition: Focus on the purpose of behavior.
Example: Studying how memory helps survival.
Gestalt Psychology
Definition: Focuses on perception as whole patterns.
Example: Seeing a face in a group of dots.
Contemporary Foundations
Freudian/Psychoanalytic
Concept: Unconscious drives and childhood experiences.
Example: Dream analysis to uncover hidden desires.
Behaviorism
Focus: Observable behavior and conditioning.
Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating at a bell.
Cognitive Revolution
Focus: Mental processes and memory.
Example: Studying how people solve puzzles.
Social & Cultural Psychology
Focus: Influence of society and culture.
Example: Exploring how norms shape behavior in different countries.
Scientific Method & Validity
Scientific Method
Step-by-step process: Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analyze → Report.
Example: Testing if music improves focus during study.
Population vs. Sample
Definition: Entire group vs. a subset studied.
Example: Studying 100 students to generalize to all college students.
Construct Validity
Definition: Does the test measure what it claims?
Example: A math test should measure math skills, not reading ability.
Internal Validity
Definition: Are results due to manipulation?
Example: Controlling for distractions during a memory test.
External Validity
Definition: Can results generalize beyond the study?
Example: Can lab results apply to real-world classrooms?
Research Methods
Descriptive Methods
Definition: Observing behavior.
Example: Watching kids play to study aggression.
Correlational Methods
Definition: Examining relationships (not causation).
Example: Studying link between sleep and GPA.
Experimental Methods
Definition: Manipulating variables to test cause-effect.
Example: Giving one group caffeine and measuring alertness.
Observational Studies
Definition: Watching behavior in natural settings.
Example: Recording behavior at a park.
Self-Reports
Definition: Surveys and interviews.
Example: Asking people how often they exercise.
Case Studies
Definition: In-depth analysis of individuals/groups.
Example: Studying one person with rare memory loss.
Third Variable Problem
Definition: Hidden variable may explain correlation.
Example: Ice cream sales and drowning—heat is the third variable.
Random Assignment
Definition: Equal chance of group placement.
Example: Flipping a coin to assign participants to groups.
The Brain
Neurons
Definition: Cells that transmit signals.
Metaphor: Like wires sending messages in a circuit.
Communication System
Definition: Involves electrical and chemical signaling.
Example: Neurotransmitters like dopamine affect mood.
Expensive Organ
Fact: Uses ~20% of body’s energy.
Example: The brain consumes lots of glucose even at rest.
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobe
Functions: Thought, planning, and movement.
Parietal Lobe
Functions: Touch and spatial relations.
Temporal Lobe
Functions: Hearing and memory.
Occipital Lobe
Functions: Vision.
Importance of Dual Coding and Retrieval Practice
Dual Coding
Concept: Utilizing both visual and verbal information to enhance memory and learning.
Retrieval Practice
Definition: Employed to solidify understanding.
Neuron Structure and Function
Importance: In certain neurological disorders, damage to parts of the neuron can significantly slow information processing.
Action Potential and Neurotransmitter Release
Definition: The process by which neurons communicate is initiated when an action potential reaches the end of the neuron, leading to the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Brain Structures
Brain Stem
Role: Regulating basic life functions.
Cerebellum
Functions: Coordination of movement and balance.
Hippocampus
Main Function: Memory formation and retrieval.
Thalamus
Functions: Sensory gateway, processing sensory information before relaying it to the cerebral cortex.
Basal Ganglia
Functions: Involvement in movement and the reward system.
Hypothalamus
Functions: Regulates various body functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep.
Amygdala
Function: Involved in emotion regulation and memory processing related to emotional responses.
Brain Plasticity
Overview of Neuroplasticity
Definition: Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
Main Points on Plasticity
Neuroplasticity Processes
Several different processes characterize neuroplasticity, occurring across the human lifespan.
Temporal Variation in Plasticity
Different plasticity types dominate during distinct developmental periods and may be less apparent at others.
Conditions for Neuroplasticity
Occurs under two primary conditions:
(1) Developmental plasticity
(2) Compensation for loss (e.g., after injury).
Environmental and Biological Interactions
Both environmental context and biological factors work together to influence plasticity through interactions.
Human Genome Project Insights
Fact: The project reveals humans have approximately 20,000 genes, intriguing implications for genetics and behavior studies.
Gene-Environment Interactions (GxE)
Definition: GxE describes how genetic predispositions can be influenced by environmental factors.
Antisocial Behavior and GxE
Graph Interpretation:
Composite index of antisocial behavior represented through z-scores varies among individuals based on their genetic makeup and history of maltreatment.
Observations:
Low MAOA activity (n=163) correlates with lower antisocial behavior within a context of severe childhood maltreatment.
High MAOA activity (n=279) shows a different trajectory in behavior patterns.
Epigenetics
Concept Clarification: The interplay of genetic and environmental factors is intricate, emphasizing that nature and nurture are not isolated but interact dynamically to influence human development and behavior.
Engage in Retrieval Practice
Action: Engage in retrieval practice without referring to notes.
Review: Check the advantages and disadvantages of case studies.
Distinguish between validities:
Internal Validity
External Validity
Construct Validity
Post-review: Check notes for accuracy to reinforce memory retention.
Neuroplasticity Overview
Neuroplasticity involves several different processes that evolve throughout the human lifespan.
Types of Plasticity
Definition: Neuroplasticity exhibits different forms:
Sensory Plasticity
Motor/Linguistic Plasticity
Higher Cognitive Plasticity
Each type of plasticity prevails during specific developmental stages.
Conditions for Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity occurs under two primary conditions:
Developmental Plasticity: Plastic changes during different life stages, particularly in childhood.
Compensation for Loss: Neuroplastic changes that enable recovery from brain damage or functional loss.
Influence of Environment
Fact: Environmental factors interact with biological components to collectively influence plasticity.
Human Genome Project Overview
Fact: Humans possess approximately 20,000 genes as part of their genetic makeup.
Gene-Environment Interactions (GxE)
Definition: Refers to the dynamic interplay between genes and environmental factors in shaping behaviors or characteristics.
Case Study: Antisocial Behavior and MAOA Gene
Composite Index of Antisocial Behavior (z-scores):
High MAOA Activity: n = 279
Low MAOA Activity: n = 163
The relationship between MAOA gene activity and childhood maltreatment is significant in determining the level of antisocial behavior.
Graph Data
Indicates antisocial behavior scores based on MAOA activity levels and childhood maltreatment:
Low MAOA: Increased scores correlate with higher instances of severe maltreatment.
Study Design Question
Action: Identify the type of study design that can explain the data presented:
A. Descriptive
B. Correlational
C. Experimental
Aggressive Responses Measurement
Assessments: Based on genetic predisposition and environmental factors:
Group Inclusions: MAOA-L (Low Activity), MAOA-H (High Activity), with statistics showing:
p = 0.03 for genes
p = 0.01 for environment
p = 0.04 for gene-environment interactions.
Risk Assessment for Aggressive Behavior
Evaluators must determine which individuals are at the highest risk for aggressive responses based on combinations of environmental factors and genetic predispositions:
Options include:
A. Individuals with exclusion experiences
B. Individuals with low MAOA gene activity
C. Individuals with both exclusion and low MAOA gene activity
D. Individuals with severe maltreatment and high MAOA gene activity
Internal Validity Discussion
Action: Discuss which study possesses greater internal validity and the rationale behind this assessment.
Epigenetics Concept
Definition: Epigenetics suggests that the interaction of nature and nurture is more complex than previously understood, blurring the boundaries between genetic inheritance and environmental influence.
Sensory Perception Controversies
Overview:
“Yanny or Laurel” auditory perception debate: Highlights the subjectivity of sensory experiences and the interpretation of sounds.
“The Dress” controversy: Visual perception reflected in divergent interpretations of color, questioning the objectivity of visual reality.
Philosophical Implications
Insight: Both controversial examples encourage the exploration of how perceived reality might differ among individuals, suggesting that sensory experiences are not necessarily universal.