african diaspora

1. What does the term “African-American” mean?
   Answer:
   “African-American” refers to citizens of the United States who are descendants of Africans—primarily those whose ancestors were forcibly brought to America via the transatlantic slave trade. This term embodies a shared cultural, historical, and social identity shaped by experiences of slavery, segregation, and ongoing struggles for equality.

2. How did the idea of eligibility impact the selection of Africans to be enslaved rather than other groups?
   Answer:
   The “eligibility” argument was rooted in racist ideologies that claimed Africans were physically robust, more accustomed to hard labor, and better suited to tropical climates. In contrast, Native Americans were often viewed as less “eligible” due to high susceptibility to European diseases and differences in agricultural practices. This pseudo-scientific rationale helped justify the large-scale enslavement of Africans.

3. What is meant by the experience of enslavement depends on “time and space?”
   Answer:
   This phrase means that the conditions, legal frameworks, cultural practices, and opportunities for resistance varied greatly depending on when (historical period) and where (geographical location) enslavement occurred. For example, the lives of enslaved Africans in colonial Virginia differed significantly from those in the Caribbean or Brazil due to differences in economic systems, legal codes, and local cultural dynamics.

4. What are the three major eras of slavery? What are their distinguishing features?
   Answer:

   • Early/Colonial Era (c. 1619–late 18th century):
     Slavery was less rigidly racialized, with some fluidity (including opportunities for manumission) and varying local practices.

   • Antebellum Era (late 18th century–1865):
     Marked by the entrenchment of racialized, chattel slavery—especially in the Southern United States—driven by the explosive growth of plantation economies (notably cotton).

   • Post-Emancipation/Jim Crow Era (Reconstruction onward):
     Although formal slavery ended, systemic racial discrimination, segregation, and economic disparities persisted, reinforcing many of the same structural inequalities.

Palmer Reading

5. What are the different historic streams of the African Diaspora?
   Answer:
   The African Diaspora comprises several streams:

   • Forced Diaspora: The mass forced migration of Africans through the transatlantic slave trade.

   • Post-Emancipation Migrations: Movements following the abolition of slavery (e.g., the Great Migration in the United States).

   • Modern Voluntary Migrations: Recent migrations driven by globalization, economic opportunity, and political factors where Africans and their descendants relocate, reasserting cultural identity.

6. Why does Palmer use the term “modern” to describe the more recent African diaspora movements?
   Answer:
   Palmer uses “modern” to distinguish these recent migrations from the historic forced dispersals of the slave trade. Modern movements are characterized by voluntary migration, global connectivity, and the re-negotiation of identity in a contemporary context shaped by globalization and transnational networks.

7. (Duplicate of Question 6)
   Answer:
   The answer is the same: Palmer emphasizes that “modern” diaspora movements involve voluntary relocation and are influenced by contemporary global dynamics—distinct from the involuntary, historical dispersals of Africans through the slave trade.

Gomez, Chapter 5

8. The majority of Africans came from what region in Africa?
   Answer:
   Most enslaved Africans brought to the Americas came from West Africa—particularly areas such as Senegambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and the Bights of Benin and Biafra.

9. What privileges and restrictions were faced by the Affranchis and Gens de Couleur?
   Answer:
   Although affranchis (freed slaves) and gens de couleur (free persons of mixed African and European descent) could own property, run businesses, and sometimes hold civic positions, they still faced severe legal and social restrictions. They were often excluded from full participation in society, subject to discriminatory laws and shifting racial hierarchies that limited their rights compared to white colonists.

10. What does Gomez mean by saying that slavery and race were created in tandem? (pp. 90-91)
    Answer:
    Gomez argues that the institution of chattel slavery necessitated the development of rigid racial categories. In order to justify the brutal treatment and lifelong bondage of Africans, colonial powers constructed the idea of race as a social and legal tool. Thus, the systems of slavery and the concept of race evolved together, each reinforcing the other.

11. Does Gomez believe in the possibility of Africans in the Americas before Columbus? Why or why not?
    Answer:
    Gomez is generally skeptical of significant pre-Columbian African presences in the Americas. While acknowledging that isolated or incidental contact might have occurred, he argues that the substantial African presence in the New World is directly linked to the transatlantic slave trade rather than to earlier migration or contact.

12. What laws did France and Spain institute to make slavery less harsh in their colonies? Were they effective? Why or why not?
    Answer:

    • France: Introduced the Code Noir (1685), which aimed to regulate the treatment of enslaved Africans by providing guidelines on religious instruction, family rights, and legal protections.

    • Spain: Implemented regulations such as the Laws of the Indies, which sought to moderate the worst excesses of colonial exploitation.

    Effectiveness: In theory, these laws were designed to mitigate cruelty; however, in practice, they were often poorly enforced. Economic pressures and local interests frequently overrode these legal protections, so the laws did little to alter the fundamental brutality of the slavery system.

13. What does Gomez mean by saying “Does the example of Cyrian Ricard have any implications for contemporary society, where success stories of African Americans are often employed as an argument against the existence of systemic barriers over which so many of African descent have yet to vault? Please take a position on his question.
    Answer:
    Gomez is critiquing the notion that individual success stories—like that of Cyrian Ricard—can be used to argue that systemic racism and structural barriers do not exist.
    Position:
    While individual achievements are admirable, they represent exceptions rather than the norm. The widespread evidence of systemic obstacles—such as economic inequality, discriminatory policies, and social exclusion—demonstrates that structural barriers continue to impede the progress of most African Americans. Individual success should not be used to dismiss or minimize the pervasive impact of systemic racism.

Raboteau Reading

14. According to Raboteau, what is the difference between the “High Gods” and “lesser gods” of Africa?
    Answer:
    In African spiritual systems, High Gods are viewed as distant, transcendent creator deities who are not directly involved in the everyday affairs of humans. In contrast, lesser gods (or spirits) are more intimately involved in daily life, acting as intermediaries between the divine and the human realms and being accessible through rituals and offerings.

15. According to Raboteau, what are ancestors? What is their relationship to the living and to gods?
    Answer:
    Ancestors are revered figures who, though deceased, continue to play an active role in the lives of their descendants. They are considered guardians, advisors, and mediators between the living and the divine. Their continued presence is honored through rituals and serves to reinforce familial bonds, cultural identity, and the connection between the human and spiritual worlds.

16. How has Catholicism been used to continue and discontinue African spiritual systems in the Americas?
    Answer:
    Catholicism was imposed by colonial powers as a tool for cultural assimilation and to suppress indigenous African religions. However, enslaved Africans often syncretized Catholic practices with their traditional beliefs—adopting Catholic saints and rituals as stand-ins for their own deities and customs. This blending allowed African spiritual systems to persist covertly, even as official efforts sought to eradicate them.

17. Where are candomblé, santeria, and voodoo practiced in the Americas? What are the main regions of Africa that influenced these systems?
    Answer:

    • Candomblé: Predominantly practiced in Brazil (especially in Bahia), drawing heavily from West African religious traditions (Yoruba, Fon, and Bantu).

    • Santería: Most common in Cuba and parts of the Caribbean, merging Yoruba practices with Catholic elements.

    • Voodoo (Vodou): Primarily associated with Haiti, reflecting influences from West and Central African spiritual traditions (including Kongo and Fon practices).