Definition and Importance
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Emphasizes the use of empirical methods to assess theories about psychological phenomena.
Scientific Inquiry in Psychology
Elements of Scientific Inquiry:
Curiosity: Researchers ask questions and develop hypotheses.
Skepticism: Doubt and question conclusions rather than accepting them blindly.
Humility: Willingness to discard theories that do not hold up to scrutiny.
Cognitive Bias
Cognitive Bias Defined: Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.
Example of Cognitive Bias: Confirmation bias, where individuals favor information that confirms their existing beliefs.
Vacancy of Cognitive Biases: Recognizing that biases can affect scientific inquiry and interpretation of data.
The Scientific Method
Process of Scientific Method:
Steps include forming a hypothesis, conducting research, and drawing conclusions.
It is a self-correcting process and relies on peer review for validity.
Types of Research Designs:
Descriptive Studies (naturalistic observation, case studies): Describe but do not explain behaviors.
Correlational Studies: Examine relationships between variables, include positive and negative correlations.
Experimental Studies: Allow isolation of cause and effect through manipulation of independent variables and control groups.
Critical Thinking in Psychology
Importance: Essential for evaluating evidence, recognizing bias, and developing sound arguments.
Barriers to Critical Thinking:
Hindsight Bias: The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.
Overconfidence: Overestimating the accuracy of one's knowledge.
Pattern Recognition in Random Events: Seeking patterns in random data can lead to false conclusions.
Statistical Concepts in Psychology
Descriptive Statistics: Summarize data through measures like mean, median, mode.
Inferential Statistics: Help determine whether observed differences can be generalized to the broader population.
Importance of representative samples and well-defined variables.
Ethics: Prioritizing participant well-being; require informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw.
Use of Animals: Ethical considerations for animal research due to potential suffering and usefulness in behavioral studies.
Informed Consent
Assent if minor
Deception
Only accepted if it doesn’t invalidate consent (ex. placebo)
Protection from harm or discomfort
Anonymity
Protection. of personal information
Coercion
No bribing into experimentation
Examples of studies that violate this include Harlow’s Monkeys or the Stanford Prison Experiment
Key Brain Structures:
Thalamus: Sensory relay center.
Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily maintenance (hunger, thirst).
Amygdala: Emotion processing, especially fear and aggression.
Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
Neurons:
Basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Types include sensory, motor, and interneurons.
Synaptic Transmission:
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
Agonists enhance neurotransmitter actions; antagonists block them.
Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, critical after injury or learning.
Sensation vs. Perception:
Sensation: Detection of physical energy in the environment.
Perception: Interpretation of sensory stimuli.
Influences on Perception:
Top-down Processing: Uses background knowledge to influence perception.
Bottom-up Processing: Builds perception from the smallest pieces of sensory information.
Selectivity in Attention: The brain's focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others, leading to phenomena like inattentional blindness.
Correlation: Measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists, often influenced by cognitive biases.
Cognition: Refers to thinking, remembering, and communicating.
Metacognition: Involves awareness and control over one's own cognitive processes (planning and assessing).
Definition: Mental grouping of similar things, aiding in understanding and decision-making.
Prototype: The best example of a category (e.g., a typical dog).
Schemas: Frameworks for organizing information and interpreting experiences.
Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences based on existing schemas.
Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information.
Definition: The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.
Key Components:
Expertise: Well-developed knowledge in a specific area.
Imaginative Thinking Skills: Applying cognition and concepts creatively.
Venturesome Personality: Willingness to seek new experiences.
Intrinsic Motivation: Drive to learn based on personal interest.
Creative Environment: Supportive surroundings that encourage creativity.
Executive Functions: High-level cognitive abilities that enable problem-solving.
Step-by-Step Process: Following a clear procedural path to find solutions.
Algorithm: A step-by-step logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution.
Heuristics: Simple, efficient rules for making decisions but can lead to errors.
Example: Quick rules of thumb for everyday judgments.
Insight: Sudden realization of a solution to a problem.
Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
Fixation: Inability to view a problem from a new perspective.
Intuition: Automatic and unreasoned thoughts that guide decisions without conscious analysis.
Availability Heuristic: Overestimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind.
Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs.
The way information is presented can significantly influence decision-making.
Memory: The ability to learn, retain, and retrieve information over time.
Types of Memory:
Recall: Retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness.
Recognition: Identifying previously learned information.
Relearning: Learning information more quickly when encountering it again.
Encoding: The process of getting information into the brain.
Storage: Retaining information for later use.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
Types of Memory Stages:
Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity, typically around 7 items.
Long-Term Memory: Information stored for extended periods, can be retrieved later.
Visual Encoding: Processing images and visual sensory information.
Acoustic Encoding: Processing sounds and auditory information, often through hearing.
Semantic Encoding: Processing the meaning of information, making it easier to remember.
Memory Models
Encoding: The process of getting information into the brain.
Storage: Retaining information for later use.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
Types of Memory Stages:
Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity, typically around 7 items.
Long-Term Memory: Information stored for extended periods, can be retrieved later.
Effects on Memory
Changes at the synapse level, such as neurogenesis and long-term potentiation, affect learning and memory.
Changes at the synapse level, such as neurogenesis and long-term potentiation, affect learning and memory.
Explicit Memory: Declarative memory that requires conscious recall.
Encoded through effortful processing.
Implicit Memory: Non-declarative memory that is often unconscious and automatic.
Processed through automatic processing.
Iconic Memory: Brief visual memory for stimuli.
Echoic Memory: Fleeting auditory memory.
As noted by George Miller, the average capacity is 7 plus or minus 2 items.
Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units.
Mnemonics: Memory aids based on visual imagery or organizational devices.
Hierarchies: Structuring information from broad to specific categories.
Spaced Practice: Distributing study activities over time.
Deep Processing: Focusing on the meaning of information to enhance retention.
Priming: The activation of associations in memory to aid retrieval.
Specificity Principle: Memory retrieval is improved when in similar contexts to where it was encoded.
Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better.
Primacy Effect: Better recall for first items.
Recency Effect: Better recall for last items.
Metacognition: Self-awareness about one's abilities to retrieve information.
Testing Effect: Practicing retrieval leads to better memory performance.
Interleaving: Mixing different topics during study sessions for better retention.
Types of Amnesia:
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall old memories.
Encoding Failure: Information never properly entered memory.
Retrieval Failure: Information exists in memory but cannot be accessed.
Proactive Interference: Older memories disrupt the formation of new ones.
Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts the recall of old memories.
Memories can be altered based on inaccurate information encountered after the event.
Children’s eyewitness accounts can be as flawed as those of adults, emphasizing the need for careful questioning.
Retrieval Cues: Using cues to trigger memories effectively.
Mnemonic Devices: Techniques to aid memory retention and recall.
Testing What You Know: Engaging in self-testing to reinforce memory.
Memory: The ability to learn, retain, and retrieve information over time. Types of Memory:
Recall: Retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness.
Recognition: Identifying previously learned information.
Relearning: Learning information more quickly when encountering it again.
Definition: The stage of a growing embryo (fetus).
Teratogens: Agents that can disrupt normal growth of the fetus.
Examples include:
Stress
Drugs (e.g., alcohol, accutane)
Infections (e.g., flu, syphilis)
Outcome of teratogens: Conditions like Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, which leads to birth defects.
Autonomic reactions: Examples include rooting reflex (opening mouth to expect food).
Infants can recognize:
Their mother’s face
Their mother’s voice
Their mother’s scent
Research methods:
Eye-tracking machines, differentiation between mother and other females through voice and scent.
Habituation: Similar to sensory adaptation; familiar stimuli elicit less response over time.
Maturation: Biological growth that enables behavioral changes.
Key developmental periods:
Ages 3-6: Rapid growth in the frontal lobe and association areas.
Importance of stimuli: Lack of exposure can hinder brain and cognitive development.
Critical period: Optimal time for exposure to language; exposure before adolescence is crucial for language acquisition.
Motor skills:
Small muscles (fine motor skills): Hands, face, feet
Large muscles (gross motor skills): Legs, arms, neck.
Explicit memory typically begins around age 4.
Babies can learn and form associations even before age 4.
Implicit memories can be retrieved, showing memory processing from ages 0-4.
Definition: The transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by puberty.
Physical changes:
Begins with sexual maturation (e.g. onset of menstruation).
Early maturation correlations: Associated with mental health issues.
Brain changes:
Development of the prefrontal cortex
Increased myelin and brain cell connections making the adolescent brain more responsive yet vulnerable (e.g., impulsive behaviors).
Middle adulthood:
Ages 30-65, marked by physical decline, menopause, and cognitive changes.
Late adulthood (65+):
End of cell reproduction, decline in senses, strength, stamina, and immune response.
Active lifestyle and health habits may prolong health and cognitive function.
Gender vs. Sex:
Sex defined by biological attributes (male/female/intersex).
Gender defined by cultural expectations and societal norms.
Genetic and chromosomal differences: Only 1 chromosome (out of 46) is unisex.
Gender-related health differences:
Women: Longer lifespan, more emotional expressions, higher rates of anxiety and eating disorders.
Men: Higher rates of suicide, alcohol abuse, ADHD, and aggression.
Hormones during adolescence greatly affect sexual growth and development of gender characteristics (testosterone for males and estrogen for females).
Cultural influences shape gender roles and perceptions.
Women are increasingly gaining rights, while men dominate STEM and leadership roles.
Social learning theory: We acquire our gender identity through social interactions and societal expectations.
Gender typing: The process through which individuals gain attributes and behaviors deemed appropriate for their gender.
Overview of Piaget’s theory: Four stages through which children develop cognitively:
Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops.
Preoperational (2-7 years): Development of language and intuition; egocentrism present.
Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical reasoning develops; able to understand others' perspectives.
Formal Operational (12-17 years): Abstract thinking and systematic reasoning.
Modern interpretations suggest Piaget’s ages may be more flexible.
Vygotsky emphasized socio-cultural context in cognitive development, involving social interactions.
Concept of "scaffolding": Support from parents and peers that fosters learning.
Definition: The ability to understand others' mental states—essential for empathy.
Neurodivergent individuals may have challenges developing this capability.
Key themes include egocentrism and the development of morality and empathy.
Memory generalization increases with age, though cognitive decline can occur in later years.
Language as an agreed-upon communication form that transmits knowledge.
Noam Chomsky proposed that language acquisition is an innate trait, distinct from other types of communication.
Key components of language:
Phonemes: Distinct sound units.
Morphemes: Meaningful units (e.g., prefixes).
Grammar: Rules governing word formation and sentence structure.
Critical period:
Infants can learn language as early as in the womb.
Developmental timeline:
4-12 months: Babbling
12-18 months: One-word stage
18-24 months: Two-word stage.
Broca’s area: Involved in speech production (located in the frontal lobe).
Wernicke’s area: Involved in language comprehension (located in the temporal lobe).
Damage to these areas can lead to aphasia.
Linguistic determinism: The premise that language influences thought processes.
Being bilingual can enhance cognitive flexibility and thinking skills.
Attachment theory: Children's emotional bonds with caregivers shape their development.
Stranger anxiety: Fear of unfamiliar people typically emerges around 8 months.
Imprinting in animals: A concept that parallels early bonding in children, although humans do not imprint.
Research focus: Children display distress when separated from their primary caregiver.
Observing responses can indicate attachment styles: secure vs. insecure attachment.
Adverse early experiences can lead to significant developmental challenges, including increased stress and behavioral issues.
Four primary styles:
Authoritarian: often leads to low self-esteem and poorer social skills.
Permissive: can lead to aggression and immaturity.
Neglectful: results in academic and social difficulties.
Authoritative: typically fosters self-esteem and competence.
Development of identity is a key task during this period.
The importance of intimacy and the ability to form close relationships is emphasized.
Parent influence diminishes while peer группы influence grows significantly. Adolescents often seek friends within similar social identities.
Definition: The transition phase into full adulthood (ages 18-mid 20s).
Characteristics: Extended exploration of life and greater independence.
The social clock refers to societal expectations about the timing of life events (e.g., marriage, childbearing).
Life satisfaction tends to stabilize post-adolescence.
Grief reactions vary significantly between individuals, and there is no consistent pattern in how people cope with the loss of loved ones.
Learning involves adapting to the environment through experience.
Different forms include:
Classical Conditioning: Associating a stimulus with a response.
Operant Conditioning: Associating actions with consequences.
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.
Founded by Ivan Pavlov, focusing on observable behaviors.
Fundamental principles include the law of effect: behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated.
Classical Conditioning is a learning process that involves creating an association between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral stimulus. This type of learning was first described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, through his experiments with dogs.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without any learning needed.Example: Food in Pavlov’s experiments.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.Example: Salivation when food is presented.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response; it becomes a conditioned stimulus through association.Example: The sound of a bell in Pavlov’s experiment before conditioning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The neutral stimulus that, after being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus, starts to trigger a conditioned response.Example: The bell after it has been associated with food.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned.Example: Salivation in response to the bell alone.
Acquisition: This is the initial stage of learning when the association between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is established.
Extinction: If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response begins to diminish.
Spontaneous Recovery: After a pause, if the conditioned stimulus is presented again, the conditioned response may briefly reappear, demonstrating that learning is not completely forgotten.
Generalization: This phenomenon occurs when the conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. For instance, a dog conditioned to salivate at a bell may also respond to a similar tone.
Discrimination: This is the opposite of generalization. It occurs when the subject learns to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to other similar stimuli.
Pavlov’s work laid the groundwork for understanding behaviorism and the scientific study of behavior. His research provided fundamental principles applicable not only to dogs but to various species and human behavior. Classical conditioning has practical applications in various fields, including psychology, education, and therapy, and it is crucial for understanding how learning occurs.
Behavioral therapies have utilized classical conditioning to address fears and cravings, such as in substance abuse treatment.
Ethical considerations: Watson's experiment with Little Albert highlighted the potential harm of conditioning fear responses.
Challenges the notion that conditioning principles are universally applicable; biological predispositions influence learning capacities.
Definition: Associating actions with consequences, increasing the likelihood of repeating behaviors when followed by rewards and reducing the likelihood when followed by punishments.
Background: Skinner’s research with the Skinner Box studied observable behaviors and indicated that environment shapes behavior.
Reinforcement concept: Behavior followed by rewards is likely to be repeated while punishment tends to decrease behaviors.
Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior by providing a stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: Involves the removal of an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement: Continuous leads to faster adaptation but is more prone to extinction.
Various partial reinforcement schedules can be established, including fixed ratio and variable ratio schedules.
Punishment aims to reduce behavior, contrasting with reinforcement, which aims to increase behavior.
Physical punishment has drawbacks and can cause more harm than good in behavior modification.
Skinner’s emphasis on behaviorism sparked debates about the dehumanizing aspects of his approach to psychology.
Techniques for various settings:
Education: Teachers can shape student behavior through reinforcement and feedback.
Sports: Coaches reward gradual performance improvements to enhance skills.
Parenting: Parents can effectively promote desired behavior by reinforcing rather than punishing.
Instinctive drift: The tendency for learned behaviors to revert to instinctual ones.
Classical: Associating two stimuli; responses are involuntary.
Operant: Associating behavior with consequences; responses are voluntary.