FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy

1. Articles of Confederation - How did the Constitution fix the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

• The Constitution established a stronger central government with defined powers, the main one dealing with taxation and money. 

2. Describe the compromises at the Constitutional Convention.

• Great Compromise: an agreement for a plan of government that settled issues of state representation by calling for a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives apportioned proportionally and a Senate apportioned equally

• Three-Fifths Compromise: an agreement by delegates at the Constitutional Convention that stated that slaves would count as 3/5ths of a person in calculating a state’s representation

• Electoral College Compromise: an agreement for a voting system that settled issues of electing the President by allowing state electors chosen by state legislatures to vote for the president.

3. Federalism - Describe the concept of federalism. 

• The sharing of power between the national government and the states.

4. Checks and balances 

   1. Describe the concept of checks and balances.

• A design of government where each branch has powers that can prevent the other branches from making policy, and helps avoid one branch having too much power.

2. How can Congress check the power of the President? 

• Congress can check the power of the President by ratifying treaties after the President negotiates them.

3. How can the judicial branch check the power of Congress?

• The judicial branch can perform judicial review, declaring laws passed by Congress unconstitutional.

5. Federalist #51 - What arguments are made to support the Constitution? (think about constitutional principles)

1. It is necessary to have a separation of powers because each branch performs its powers differently, while preserving liberty and controlling the abuse of the majority.

2. Checks and balances are needed because they keep the government in its proper place and avoid too much power and the abuse of the majority.

3. Federalism is good because it maintains checks and balances between the federal government and the states.

4. A large, diverse republic will control the abuse of majority factions.

6.  What Anti-Federalist concerns were the Federalists addressing?

• The Federalists addressed the Anti-Federalist concern of a strong, central government by emphasizing constitutional principles, such as federalism, checks and balances, separation of powers, and a Bill of Rights.

7. Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists 

   1. What did Anti-Federalists want added to the Constitution?

• The Anti-Federalists wanted a Bill of Rights added to the Constitution.

2. According to Federalists, what powers are given in the Constitution that restrain the national government?

• Separation of powers, federalism, and checks and balances

8. Describe the differences between the pluralist and elitist political models of citizen participation in influencing policy.

• The pluralist political model of citizen participation emphasizes the role of groups in the policymaking process, while the elitist political model of citizen participation emphasizes the role of small, elite/wealthier groups that have more influences in the policymaking process.

Unit 2: Interactions Among the Branches of Government

1. Legislative Branch

   1. What does the term bicameral mean?

• 2-house legislature

2. What are the differences in the House of Representatives and Senate (requirements for office, length of term, who they represent, responsibilities)?

   House of Representatives:	Senate:
   Requirements: 25 years old, 7 years of citizenship, resident	Requirements: 30 years old, 9 years of citizenship, resident
   Length of terms: 2 years	Length of terms: 6 year terms
   Who they represent: Their district	Who they represent: Entire state
   Responsibilities: Making & passing federal laws, initiating revenue bills, & impeaching federal officials	Responsibilities: Confirming presidential appointments, approving treaties, & serves as a court of impeachment

   
   

   2. What is the difference between enumerated and implied powers?

   • Enumerated powers are explicitly granted to the national government through the Constitution, while implied powers are not granted specifically to the national government, but considered needed to carry out enumerated powers.

   3. What is the job of committees?

   • Standing: Handles ongoing, permanent legislative duties, like reviewing or writing bills

   • Joint: Includes members of BOTH chambers to conduct studies or oversee specific areas

   • Conference: Resolves differences between House & Senate versions of a bill

   • Select: Formed TEMPORARILY to investigate or address specific issues

   4. What is the difference between standing and conference committees?

   • Standing committees are permanent and handle ongoing legislative work, while conference committees are temporary and only formed to resolve differences between House & Senate versions of a bill.

   5. What is the job of the Rules Committee in the House? 

   • The Rules Committee in the House determines when a bill will be subject to debate & vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, & whether amendments will be allowed on the floor. (Basically setting the terms for debate on a bill).

   6. How are committee membership and leadership roles assigned in Congress?

   • They are assigned based on the majority party.

   7. Describe how a bill becomes law. Why is it difficult for most bills to become laws?

   1:  A concerned citizen writes a letter to a congressman.

   2: The Congressman sponsors a bill from a concerned citizen.

   3: The bill is sent to a Senate committee to be studied.

   4: The Senate committee passes the bill.

   5: The Senate votes and passes the bill.

   6: The bill is sent to a House committee to be studied.

   7: The House committee passes the bill with revisions.

   8: The House of Representatives votes and passes the bill.

   9: A conference committee makes changes to the original bill.

   10: The bill is sent back to both houses & passes. They agree to the changes.

   11: The bill is sent to the president.

   12: The president vetoes the bill.

   • Because of congressional committees and they may refuse to report the bill to the full chamber

   8. Describe the role of oversight.

   • Oversight is efforts by Congress to ensure that the executive branch, agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals (keeps executive branch in check)

   9. Explain the three roles of governance (delegate, trustee, politico).

   • Delegate: Main duty of a member of Congress is to carry out constituent’s wishes

   • Trustee: Members of Congress should act as trustees, and make decisions based on their knowledge & judgementPolitico: Representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents & politcal parties in making decisions

   1. Congressional elections

      1. What is the difference between partisan and bipartisan politics?

   • Partisan politics occur when lawmakers mainly support their own party’s ideas and oppose other parties, while bipartisan politics occur when there is an agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation.

   2. What is gerrymandering? How can it cause political division?

   • Gerrymandering: The intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest/group of voters that normally result in illogical & oddly-shaped areas.

   • This can cause political division because it manipulates district boundaries to favor one party, causing unfair representation.

   3. Who draws district lines for selecting representatives?

   • State legislatures

   4. Divided government - What does it mean? What difficulties does it cause?

   • Divided Government: The control of the presidency & one/both chambers of Congress split between the 2 major parties.

   • Divided government causes gridlock because different political parties control different part of government, leading them to disagree often.

   2. Executive Branch

      1. What are the requirements for office? 

   • Must be 35 years old, 14 years of residency in the U.S., must be a “natural born citizen”

   2. What is a signing statement?

   • Written statements issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consist of political statements/reasons for signing the bill but may also include a president’s interpretation of the law itself (message from the president when signing a bill into law, stating how they understand it or plan to enforce it)

   3. What is the role of the Vice President?

   • The main role of the Vice President is to break ties, assist the president, and serve if/when the president can’t.

   4. What is the role of the President’s Cabinet? Who selects members of Cabinet?

   • The Cabinet advises the president and the members are selected by the President with approval from the Senate.

   5. How did each amendment impact the presidency (12, 22, 25)?

   • 12: Electors vote for the President & Vice President (placed as a team running together)

   • 22: Limits the President’s tenure to 2 terms or a maximum of 10 years

   • 25: Presidential vacancy & disability (succession), the Vice President will take over if the President cannot

   6. What is the purpose of the federal bureaucracy?

   • The federal bureaucracy is carry out and enforce laws and handle the day-to-day operations of the federal government through various departments

   3. Federal budget

      1. What is the difference between mandatory and discretionary spending? 

   • Mandatory spending is spending that is required by existing laws that is “locked in” the budget and pays for entitlement programs (Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid), while discretionary spending is spending for programs and politics at the discretion of Congress & the President (it is more flexible than mandatory spending).

   2. What are some programs supported by mandatory (entitlement) spending?

   • Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, federal student loans & grants, unemployment insurance

   4. Judicial Branch - What types of cases is the Supreme Court most likely to hear?

   • Things dealing with:

   - The Constitution

   - Federal laws (tax evasion, kidnapping, counterfeiting)

   - Disputes between states

   - Citizens from different states

   - The federal government

   - Foreign governments & treaties

   - Admiralty & maritime laws (open seas)

   - U.S. diplomats

   Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

   1. What is selective incorporation?

   • The piecemeal process through which the Supreme Court has affirmed that almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights also apply to state governments

   2. First Amendment - What rights are protected in the amendment? What is the difference between the establishment clause and the free-exercise clause?

   • Right to free speech, religion, the press, to petition, & assembly

   • The establishment clause is a 1st amendment protection against the government requiring citizens to join or support a religion, while the free exercise clause is a 1st amendment protection of the rights of individuals to exercise & express their religious beliefs.

   3. Bill of Rights - What are the basic rights given in each of the amendments?

   • 1. Right to free speech, religion, to petition, the press & assembly

   • 2. Right to bear arms

   • 3. No quartering of troops

   • 4. No unreasonable searches & seizures (must have a warrant)

   • 5. Right to due process, eminent domain & grand jury review, but there must be no self-incrimination or double jeopardy

   • 6. Right to speedy and public trial, witnesses, counsel, impartial jury, and be informed of the charges against you

   • 7. Sue for damages in a civil court

   • 8. No cruel or unusual punishment and no excessive bail

   • 9. Guaranteed rights not specifically stated

   • 10. Reserved state powers

   4. Civil Rights Act, 1964 - What was the purpose of the act? What enumerated power gave Congress the ability to make this law?

   • Civil Rights Act of 1964: Legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools & public places (included employment  & authorizing the attorney general to sue individual school districts that failed to desegregate

   5. Fourteenth amendment - What rights are granted in the 14th amendment?

   • Grants the right to citizenship to all citizens born or naturalized in the U.S.

   • Right to equal protection under the law

   • Right to due process

   6. Letter from a Birmingham Jail - What were the main points of the document? Which amendment best supports his main points?

   • 1. When frustration & despair continue to be ignored, violence will occur

   • 2. Just laws square with morals and the law of God, they uplift human personality & are followed by everyone

   • 3. Unjust laws degrade human personality & are out of harmony with the moral law, they are not followed by everyone.

   • 4. Because the church stayed silent instead of taking action, they did exactly what their religion tells them NOT to do.

   • 5. King uses the American Revolution to show what happens when frustration & despair are ignored

   • The 14th Amendment best supports his main points because King is arguing for equal protection under the law and an end to racial discrimination.

   
   

   Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

   1. Core political values - Explain each of the five core American values.

   • Individualism: The belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and for the decisions they make

   • Equality of Opportunity: The equal right of people to pursue life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (it is NOT equality of result)

   • Laissez-Faire/Free Enterprise System: An economic system in which government intrudes as little as possible in the economic transactions among citizens and businesses

   • Rule of Law: The principle that no one, including public officials, is above the law (this goes beyond checks & balances)

   • Limited Government: Government is restricted to what is in the Constitution and they should not take away rights and should represent the people)

   1. Political socialization 

      1. Define political socialization.

   • Political Socialization: The experiences & factors that shape an individual’s political values, attitudes, and behaviors (develops political ideology)

   2. What influences one’s political ideology?

   • Family

   • School/College

   • Peers

   • Religion

   • Civic Organizations

   2. Political ideology 

      1. What is the difference between liberalism and conservatism? Which parties are most aligned with each ideology?

   • Liberalism is more aligned with the Democratic ideology and emphasizes the need for more government regulation of business & the economy & more government involvement in social policy. Conservatism, on the other hand, is more aligned with the Republican ideology and emphasizes the need for less government regulation of business & the economy & less government involvement in social policy.

   2. What is the difference between Keynesian economic theory and supply-side economics? Which parties favor which theories?

   
   

   Keynesian Economic Theory (Government Spending):	Supply-Side Economics (Business Spending):
   Favored by Democrats	Favored by Republicans
   More money spent, cut taxes, and more policies should be in the economy when it is bad	Emphasizes the role of supply in the economic system
   Less money spent, raise taxes, and less policies should be in the economy when it is good (to prevent inflation)	A more laissez-faire approach
   Seen during the Great Depression with public works projects	Keeps taxes low on people & business so they spend money

   3. Public opinion polls 

      1. What makes a poll credible?

   • 1. Random Sampling – Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, preventing bias.

   • 2. Representative Sample – The sample reflects the demographics of the population (age, gender, race, etc.).

   • 3. Sample Size – Typically around 1,000–1,500 people to ensure reliable results.

   • 4. Low Margin of Error – A smaller margin (usually ±3%) means greater accuracy.

   • 5. Question Order/Wording – Questions must be clear and unbiased to avoid influencing responses.

1. What is the sampling size and sampling error?

• Sampling size refers to the number of people surveyed in a poll, typically 1,000-1,500 people are used to represent a larger population. While the sampling error/margin of error is the range of possible error in a poll, which is usually calculated to ±3%, meaning the actual opinion in the population could be 3 points higher or lower than the poll shows.

Unit 5: Political Participation

1. Voter demographics

   1. Who typically votes/does not vote? 

• Older adults typically do vote, while younger adults typically do not vote

2. For those that vote, what does that mean for them in regards to policy making?

• They will have a greater influence on policy making because elected officials will listen to their concerns and act on them.

2. Barriers to voting - What are some barriers that prevent people from voting today?

• 1. Voter ID laws

• 2. Voter apathy

• 3. Registration Issues

3. Types of voting - Explain the difference in the types of voting decisions (rational choice, retrospective, prospective, and party-line).

• Rational Choice: Voting based on what citizen believes in his/her best interest

• Retrospective: Voting based on an assessment of an incumbent’s past performance

• Prospective: Voting for a candidate who promises to enact polices favored by the voter

• Party-Line: Voting for candidates who belong only to one political party for all of the offices on the ballot (strong party loyalty)

4. How have candidate-centered elections impacted political parties?

• They shift power from the parties to the people and people are able to see what their candidates are like on a personal level, rather than just on the party level.

5. Describe the winner-take-all system of the Electoral College.

• Winner-Take-All System: A system of elections in which the candidate who win the plurality of votes within a state receives all of that state’s votes in the Electoral College (it is NOT present in Maine & Nebraska)

6. Suffrage Amendments - What voting rights were granted in the following amendments - 15, 19, 24, 26?

• 15: Expanded voting rights to African American men

• 19: Expanded voting rights to women

• 24: Eliminated poll taxes and expanded voting rights to primarily African Americans

• 26: Expanded voting rights to those who are 18 & older

7. What was the purpose of the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

• It outlawed literacy tests & was the “clean-up act” that allowed the federal government to monitor and enforce fair voting rights in all states

8. Linkage institutions 

   1. What are the four parts of the linkage system?

• Political parties, elections, interest groups, & media

2. What is the role of each?

• Political Parties: Organize & mobilize voters & recruit & support candidates

• Elections: Enforce accountability & turn public opinion into political power

• Interest Groups: Represent specific issues 

• Media: Inform the public (agenda setting, reporting, investigating, commenting, analyzing, scorekeeping, watchdog)