Invasion of the Ruhr & Munich Putsch

What was the political impact of the Ruhr invasion and what was the Munich Putsch?

Political Impact of the Ruhr Invasion:

• Germans of all classes + political allegiances had been outraged by the French occupation of the Ruhr.

• Trauma of hyperinflation had profound psychological effects.

• Germany swept by wave of anti-French feeling + country was more united than at any time since the end of the war.

• As the historian Richard Evans has written, hyperinflation ‘added to the feeling in the more conservative sections of the population of a world turned upside down, first by defeat, then by revolution, and now by economics’.

• H/e many blamed the govt. for what happened + middle-class support for the Republic = severely damaged.

• Organisations representing Mittelstand accused the govt. of failing in its responsibility to protect independent small traders + artisans.

• On the left, communists tried to use crisis to stage uprisings in some areas. Moreover, after ending of passive resistance, nationalist right accused govt. of betrayal.

• Occupation of Ruhr + subsequent hyperinflation crisis = backdrop to last attempt to overthrow Republic by force in 1923 by small Bavarian-based party known as the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party).

Establishment of the Nazi Party:

• Nazi Party almost alone in arguing German patriots should first remove the ‘November Criminals’ from govt. before dealing with the French

• When the govt. of Gustav Stresemann called off passive resistance in September without winning any concessions from French, there was outcry from Right, seen as yet another act of betrayal.

• Gustav Stresemann (1879-1929): Leader of DVP party. Although monarchist at heart, came round to working with republican parties in Weimar Republic + became Chancellor in Grand Coalition of 1923. Responsible for introduction of new currency + ending of hyperinflation but forced to step down as Chancellor in November. Nevertheless, he continued to serve as foreign minister from 1923 until his death in 1929.

• In Bavaria right-wing govt. declared state of emergency + appointed Gustav von Kahr as state commissioner.

• Gustav Ritter von Kahr (1862-1934): Right-wing conservative politician who was Minister-President (1920-1) of right-wing govt. in Bavaria. Stepped down after disagreements with Reich govt. but in 1923 was appointed State-Commissioner General + given wide powers by Munich govt. Favoured strong Bavarian state with own monarchy + hoped to use Nazi Party to this end. H/e although sympathetic to Hitler was unwilling participant in Beer Hall Putsch of Nov. 1923. Spent rest of his career as president of Bavarian administrative court, but was murdered in 1934 during Hitler’s ‘Night of the Long Knives’.

• Amongst right-wing nationalists in Bavarian capital, Munich, was growing agitation for ‘march on Berlin’ to overthrow the govt. + establish national dictatorship.

• At forefront of agitation for ‘march on Berlin’ was leader of NSDAP, then little known, Adolf Hitler.

Adolf Hitler:

Little in background og Hitler to suggest he’d become powerful political figure.

• Born in Austria April 1889 + although not German by birth grew up believing all Germans should be united in greater German Reich.

• However in youth wanted to become an artist, not politician  after failing to get into Academy of Art in Vienna, became a drifter living on margins of society.

• 1913 moved to Munich, capital of Bavaria, + continued to live as he had in Vienna.

• Outbreak of WW1 gave him new purpose in life  enthusiastically supported Germany’s declaration of war on Russia + France + volunteered for German Army.

• War spent on Western Front in France where he gained promotion to corporal + decorated for bravery.

• Like thousands of fellow soldiers was outraged by signing of armistice in Nov. 1918 + embraced ‘stab in the back’ myth as only possible explanation for Germany’s defeat.

• After armistice returned to Munich, which was rapidly becoming centre of ultra-nationalist, anti-Semitic + anti-Weimar political agitation.

• Early 1919: already framed in his mind the core of what would become National Socialism: fervent German nationalism, support of authoritarianism + opposition to democracy + socialism, + racially inspired view of society exhibiting itself most obviously in rabid anti-Semitism + veneration of German ‘volk’ as master race.

• Such a mixture of ideas in a man whose personal life was much of a mystery – no close family + few real friends – has excited some historians to resort to pseudo-psychological analysis, leading to extraordinary speculation.

• Some argued his authoritarian attitude attributed to strict upbringing at hands of old + repressive father + even a theory he contracted syphilis from a female Jewish prostitute, contributing to fierce anti-Semitism but such arguments are grounded on very flimsy evidence and should be criticized.

• Other historians argued his staunch anti-Semitism from his encounters with White Russian emigres who fled Russia after 1917 Bolshevik Revolution  extreme right wing nationalists who saw Bolshevism as part of Jewish conspiracy for world domination. Many of them had been members of notoriously violent Black Hundreds organization, which had been involved in worst pogroms in Tsarist Russia.

• But these are all speculative and don’t help explain why Hitler became influential political force.

Hitler and the emergence of the Nazi Party:

• Worked as political agent for army + in this capacity was sent to investigate small right-wing political group – German Workers’ Party.

• German Workers’ Party had been set up in 1919 by Anton Drexler as party combining socialist ideas with nationalism.

• Hitler joined party + rapidly became most effective orator.

• In 1920 party changed its name to National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) issued 25 point programme setting out its beliefs.

• Alarmed by Hitler’s increasing domination of the party, Drexler + some other members of committee tried to limit his influence. h/e Hitler showed his political ability to manoeuvre + gamble  he shrewdly offered to resign.

• In ensuing power struggle he was quickly able to mobilise support at 2 meetings in July 1921 + invited back triumphant. Embarassed Drexler regined _ Hitler became chairman and fuhrer (leader) of party.

• Under his leadership, Nazi Party became dedicated to violent overthrow of Weimar Republic + replacement with Nazi dictatorship.

• Having gained supreme control over party in Munich, Hitler aimed to subordinate all the other right-wing groups under his party’s leadership:

i) Armed squads organized + set up as SA in 1921, as paramilitary unit led by Ernst Rohm. Used to organize planned thuggery + violence.

ii) Party established its first newspaper in 1921, the ‘Volkischer Beobachter’ (People’s Observer)

iii) 1922 Hitler won backing of Julius Streicher, leader of rival right-wing party. Streicher also published his own newspaper, ‘Der Sturmer’, which was overtly anti-Semitic with range of seedy articles devoted to sex + violence.

iv) Hitler also fortunate to win support of Hermann Goring, who joined party in 1922. He was born into a Bavarian landowning family, while his wife was a Swedish aristocrat. They had many v. helpful social contacts in Munich, which gave Hitler respectability.

By 1923, party had membership of about 20,000, Hitler had impressive personal reputation + Nazism successfully established influential role on extreme right in Bavaria.

However at this stage NSDAP just one of many ultra-nationalist groups in Munich + completely unknown in rest of Europe. Still a fringe party.

Beer Hall Putsch in Munich:

• Successful takeover of power by Benito Mussolini in Italy in October 1922, combined with developing internal crisis in Germany, convinced Hitler opportunity to seize power had arrived  indeed a leading Nazi introduced Hitler at one of his speeches in Munich by saying: ‘Germany’s Mussolini is called Adolf Hitler’

• However Nazis far too weak on own to stage any kind of political takeover + Hitler himself still seen merely as ‘drummer’ who could stir up masses for national movement. Need for allies led Hitler into negotiations with Kahr + Bavarian state govt. + Bavarian section of German army under Lossow.

• Nov. 1923  Hitler made bid to seize power, knew putsch could only succeed if he had the support of powerful figures so, having secured support of Ludendorff, he set out to win over Ritter von Kahr + Otto von Lossow, local army commander.

  • Otto von Lossow (1868-1938): commander of the Reichswehr in Bavaria, staunch conservative + favoured strong national state. Refused to obey orders from Reichswehr Ministry in Berlin and only obeyed instructions from von Kahr, with whom he was plotting to establish a new regime in Berlin. H/e was ready to be patient unlike Hitler + how convinced he really was by Hitler’s attempted putsch isn’t known.

• 8 Nov.  burst into Munich beer hall, where von Kahr + von Lossow were addressing meeting of 2000, surrounding it with his Stormtroopers (SA) + announcing revolution had begun.

  • Stormtroopers (SA): para-military wing of Nazi Party, led by Ernst Rohm; wearing distinctive brown shirts, they were given the job of beating up the Nazis’ opponents – many members had formerly belonged to the Freikorps.

• At gunpoint, in a side room, Kahr + von Lossow persuaded to agree to his plan to march on Berlin + install Ludendorff as the new Commander-in-Chief. However support evaporated overnight + so too did Hitler’s chances of persuading others to support him.

• Crucially, Stormtroopers were unable to gain control of Munich army barracks + by next day, 9 November, clear Hitler’s original plan had failed.

• Nevertheless, he went ahead with march through Munich with Goring, Streicher, Rohm Ludendorff + 2000 SA men,  ensuing gun battle with police later became part of folklore of ‘courageous’ Nazis who marched fearlessly through streets into arms of police cordon.

• Hitler fell + dislocated his shoulder, possibly in response to shooting of his companion with whom he had linked arms.

  • Had no military backing + attempted takeover of Munich easily crushed by Bavarian police. 14 Nazis were killed.

  • Fled, only to be captured next day, whilst Ludendorff walked straight up to police + allowed himself to be arrested.

With hindsight, Hitler’s plan was unrealistic + doomed b/c:

i) grossly overestimated level of public support for putsch – despite problems faced by Weimar’s democratic govt. in 1923.

ii) showed lack of real planning.

iii) relied too heavily on promise of support of Ludendorff.

iv) At eleventh hour, Kahr + Lossow, fearing failure, decided to hold back.

Aftermath of Munich Putsch:

• In many respects the putsch was a farce  Hitler + the putschists were arrested + charged with treason + NSDAP banned.

• Incident showed again importance of the army to political survival of the regime.

• General Seeckt sent in troops to deal with aftermath of abortive putsch + central control over Bavaria soon re-imposed.

• Nazis banned + Hitler imprisoned (although he served just 9 months of his 5 year sentence).

• Once again, Republic survived.

• On one level, the inglorious result of the Nazi putsch was encouraging for Weimar democracy, withstanding a dangerous threat in a difficult year.

• Most significantly, Seeckt _ the army didn’t throw in their lot with the Nazis, which upset Hitler so much he described him as a ‘lackey of the Weimar Republic’.

• But dealings of judiciary raised much concern –> Hitler sentenced to mere 5 years (min. stipulation for treason) + released after less than 10 months.

• Ludendorff acquitted on grounds that although he had been present at the time of the putsch, he was there ‘by accident’.

• Hitler gained significant political advantages from Munich Putsch:

i) Turned trial into propaganda success for himself and Nazism, playing on rhetorical skills + evoking admiration for his patriotism, making himself a national figure.

ii) Won respect of other nationalists for having courage to act.

iii) Lenience of his sentence seemed like encouragement on part of judiciary.

iv) Used months in prison to write + reassess his political strategy, including dictating ‘Mein Kampf’.