AP psych

🧠 Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

1. Psychology

Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Example: A psychologist studies why people get anxious before public speaking.

2. Nature vs. Nurture

Definition: The debate about whether behavior is caused more by genes (nature) or environment/experience (nurture).
Example: Are you good at music because of your genes or because you took lessons as a kid?

🧠 Major Perspectives

3. Neuroscience (Biological) Perspective

Definition: Focuses on how the brain, nervous system, and body affect behavior and thinking.
Example: Studying how low serotonin levels are linked to depression.

4. Evolutionary Perspective

Definition: Looks at how natural selection influences behavior.
Example: Fear of snakes may exist because it helped our ancestors survive.

5. Behavior Genetics Perspective

Definition: Studies how genes and environment interact to shape behavior.
Example: Twin studies help reveal how much personality is inherited.

6. Psycho-dynamic Perspective

Definition: Emphasizes unconscious desires and early childhood experiences.
Example: Someone has a fear of abandonment because of early trauma.

7. Behavioral Perspective

Definition: Focuses on observable behavior and learning through rewards and punishments.
Example: A student studies harder after getting praised for a good grade.

8. Cognitive Perspective

Definition: Focuses on how we think, remember, and process information.
Example: Studying how memory errors happen when we take tests.

9. Social-Cultural Perspective

Definition: Looks at how society and culture affect behavior.
Example: Teen behavior in the U.S. differs from that in Japan due to cultural values.

🧠 Psychology’s Sub fields

10. Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist

Definition: Applies psychology to the workplace to improve productivity and well-being.
Example: Helps a company reduce employee stress and increase job satisfaction.

11. Clinical Psychology

Definition: Studies and treats people with mental health issues.
Example: A clinical psychologist helps someone with anxiety using talk therapy.

12. Psychiatry

Definition: A branch of medicine that treats mental illness using medications and therapy.
Example: A psychiatrist prescribes antidepressants to a patient with depression.

🔬 The Scientific Method

4. Hypothesis

Definition: A testable prediction about how things work.
Example: “If students study more, then their test scores will improve.”

5. Operational Definition

Definition: Clearly defining a variable so it can be measured or observed.
Example: “Study time” might be defined as “1 hour of reviewing material each day for 2 weeks.”

6. Replication

Definition: Repeating a study to see if the results are the same.
Example: A researcher repeats an experiment on memory to see if others get the same results.

UNIT 2: 🔬 Types of Research

7. Case Study

Definition: A detailed examination of a single person or group.
Example: Studying a patient with amnesia to understand memory loss.

8. Survey

Definition: A method of gathering information through self-reported answers.
Example: A school surveys students to find out how much time they spend on homework each week.

9. Wording Effects

Definition: The influence that the way a question is phrased has on responses.
Example: Asking “How satisfied are you with the service?” vs. “How dissatisfied are you with the service?”

10. Population

Definition: The entire group being studied.
Example: All high school students in the U.S.

11. Random Sample

Definition: A sample where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Example: Drawing names from a hat to select participants for a study.

12. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment.
Example: Watching how children interact during recess without interfering.

🔬 Correlation

13. Correlation Coefficient

Definition: A number that shows the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
Example: A correlation of +0.8 means a strong positive relationship, where as one variable increases, the other also increases.

14. Scatterplot

Definition: A graph that shows the relationship between two variables.
Example: A scatterplot showing the relationship between hours studied and test scores.

15. Correlation and Causation

Definition: Correlation does not imply causation; just because two things are related doesn't mean one causes the other.
Example: Ice cream sales and drowning are correlated, but eating ice cream doesn't cause drowning — it's just a summer phenomenon.

16. Illusory Correlation

Definition: The perception of a relationship where none exists.
Example: Believing that full moons cause people to act strangely, even though no real connection exists.

🔬 Experimentation

17. Experiment

Definition: A research method where a researcher manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.
Example: Testing if a new drug reduces symptoms of depression.

18. Double-Blind Procedure

Definition: Both the participants and the experimenters are unaware of who is receiving the treatment to prevent bias.
Example: A study on a new headache medicine where neither the patient nor the doctor knows which pill is the real one.

19. Placebo Effect

Definition: When people experience improvements in their condition simply because they believe they're receiving treatment.
Example: A person feeling better after taking a sugar pill, thinking it's a real medication.

20. Experimental Condition

Definition: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.
Example: In a drug study, the experimental group would receive the actual drug.

21. Control Condition

Definition: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used for comparison.
Example: The control group in a drug study may receive a placebo.

22. Random Assignment

Definition: Randomly assigning participants to either the experimental or control group to reduce bias.
Example: Randomly assigning participants to different groups to test a new exercise regimen.

23. Independent Variable

Definition: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
Example: The dosage of a drug in a clinical trial.

24. Dependent Variable

Definition: The variable that is measured in an experiment to see if it changes due to the independent variable.
Example: The participants’ test scores after being exposed to a new study method.

🧠 Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Definition: The brain and spinal cord, which control most functions of the body and mind.
Example: Your brain processes information when you touch a hot stove, and your spinal cord sends a signal to pull your hand away.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Definition: All nerves outside the CNS that connect the body to the CNS.
Example: Nerves in your fingers carry signals to your brain when you feel something.

3. Autonomic Nervous System

Definition: A part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
Example: Your heart beating faster when you’re nervous or scared.

4. Sympathetic Nervous System

Definition: Part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the “fight or flight” response.
Example: Your heart rate increases when you're in a stressful situation, like public speaking.

5. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Definition: Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after a stress response.
Example: After a stressful event, your heart rate slows down and your body relaxes.

6. Somatic Nervous System

Definition: Part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Example: Moving your arm to wave at someone.

🧠 Neurons and Neurotransmitters

7. Neurons

Definition: Nerve cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Example: Sensory neurons send information about touch to the brain.

8. Glial Cells

Definition: Cells that support and protect neurons.
Example: Glial cells provide nutrients to neurons and help remove waste.

9. Action Potential

Definition: A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron, triggering communication between cells.
Example: A neuron firing to transmit a signal about pain from your foot to your brain.

10. All-or-Nothing Principle

Definition: The idea that neurons either fire completely or not at all.
Example: A neuron either sends a signal down the axon or doesn't; there's no "partial firing."

11. Depolarization

Definition: The process of a neuron becoming less negatively charged, triggering an action potential.
Example: A neuron starts firing when the inside of the cell becomes more positive.

12. Refractory Period

Definition: The brief time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.
Example: After a neuron sends a signal, it temporarily needs to "rest" before firing again.

13. Resting Potential

Definition: The electrical state of a neuron when it’s not firing; it is negatively charged inside.
Example: A neuron at rest, before it gets a signal to fire.

14. Reuptake

Definition: The process of a neurotransmitter being reabsorbed by the sending neuron after it has triggered a response.
Example: After serotonin helps regulate mood, it is taken back up by the neuron to be used again.

🧠 Neurotransmitters

15. Dopamine

Definition: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.
Example: Dopamine levels increase when you receive a reward for doing something good.

16. Serotonin

Definition: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
Example: Low serotonin levels are linked to depression.

17. Norepinephrine

Definition: A neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal.
Example: Norepinephrine increases when you're in a stressful situation, preparing your body for action.

18. Glutamate

Definition: The most common excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning and memory.
Example: Glutamate helps your brain form new memories when studying for a test.

19. GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

Definition: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.
Example: GABA helps reduce anxiety by slowing down brain activity.

20. Endorphins

Definition: Neurotransmitters that relieve pain and promote feelings of pleasure.
Example: After exercising, your brain releases endorphins, making you feel "good" or euphoric.

🧠 Brain Structures and Functions

21. Brainstem

Definition: The oldest part of the brain, responsible for basic survival functions like heartbeat and breathing.
Example: The brainstem helps you breathe automatically while you sleep.

22. Medulla

Definition: Part of the brainstem that controls vital functions like heart rate and breathing.
Example: If the medulla is damaged, you might have difficulty breathing or maintaining heart rate.

23. Pons

Definition: A part of the brainstem involved in regulating sleep and arousal.
Example: The pons helps control your ability to fall asleep and wake up.

24. Cerebellum

Definition: A brain structure that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.
Example: The cerebellum helps you maintain balance while walking on a tightrope.

25. Thalamus

Definition: The brain’s sensory control center that directs incoming sensory information to the correct brain regions.
Example: The thalamus sends visual information from your eyes to the visual cortex.

26. Hypothalamus

Definition: A brain region involved in regulating hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the fight-or-flight response.
Example: The hypothalamus signals hunger when your blood sugar is low.

27. Amygdala

Definition: A part of the limbic system involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and aggression.
Example: The amygdala helps you feel fear when you encounter a dangerous situation.

28. Hippocampus

Definition: A brain structure involved in the formation of new memories.
Example: The hippocampus helps you remember your first day of school.

🧠 Unit 4: Consciousness & Sleep

1) Consciousness

Definition: The awareness of ourselves and our surroundings.
Example: When you're watching TV, you are consciously aware of the images, sounds, and your thoughts.

2) Circadian Rhythm

Definition: The 24-hour biological clock that regulates sleep and wake cycles.
Example: Feeling awake during the day and tired at night due to your body’s internal clock.

3) NREM Stage 1

Definition: The lightest stage of sleep where you drift in and out and may experience "jerking" sensations.
Example: You might feel like you're falling and suddenly jerk awake.

4) NREM Stage 2

Definition: A deeper stage of sleep where your body temperature drops and heart rate slows.
Example: You’re harder to wake up from this stage compared to Stage 1.

5) NREM Stage 3 (Stages 3 & 4)

Definition: Deep sleep with slow brain waves; this is the most restful stage for the body.
Example: After a full night of sleep, you wake up feeling refreshed because you’ve spent time in this stage.

6) REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep)

Definition: The sleep stage where most dreaming occurs; the body is paralyzed, but the brain is highly active.
Example: You dream about running but can’t move your body during REM sleep.

7) Sleep

Definition: A natural state of rest for the body and mind, including different stages like REM and NREM.
Example: You sleep at night, going through various stages that refresh your mind and body.

8) Why Do We Sleep?

Definition: Sleep is essential for restoring energy, repairing the body, and consolidating memories.
Example: After a good night's sleep, you feel more alert and ready to tackle your day.

9) Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Definition: Lack of sleep can lead to fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and mood changes.
Example: After staying up too late, you may feel irritable and have trouble focusing.

10) Sleep Functions

Definition: Sleep helps restore physical health, regulate mood, and enhance memory and learning.
Example: Sleep allows your brain to process and store memories from the day.

Sleep Disorders

11) Insomnia

Definition: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Example: You lie in bed for hours but can’t fall asleep, leaving you tired the next day.

12) Narcolepsy

Definition: A disorder where people suddenly fall asleep during the day, even if they’ve had enough rest.
Example: Someone might fall asleep while talking, even during a conversation.

13) Sleep Apnea

Definition: A disorder where a person’s breathing stops temporarily during sleep.
Example: Someone may snore loudly and wake up frequently during the night without realizing it.

14) Night Terrors

Definition: Intense fear or panic attacks during sleep, usually in the NREM stages, that the person may not remember.
Example: A child might wake up screaming in terror, but not recall the event the next morning.

Dreams

15) Dream

Definition: A sequence of images and sensations that occur while sleeping, usually during REM.
Example: You might dream about running through a forest or having a conversation with someone.

16) Why Do We Dream?

Definition: Theories suggest that dreaming helps us process emotions, sort memories, or simulate future challenges.
Example: Dreaming about an upcoming presentation might help your brain rehearse how you’ll handle it.

17) Activation-Synthesis Model

Definition: The theory that dreams are the brain’s way of making sense of random neural activity during sleep.
Example: A random brain signal might turn into a dream about flying.

18) REM Rebound

Definition: When you don't get enough REM sleep one night, your body spends more time in REM the next night.

Example: If you pull an all-nighter, you may experience more vivid dreams the next time you sleep.
Stress & Health
19) Health Psychology
Definition: The study of how behavior, emotions, and psychological factors affect physical health.
Example: A health psychologist might study how stress can lead to heart disease.
20) Stress
Definition: The emotional and physical response to external challenges or demands.
Example: You feel stressed when you're facing a big exam or an important presentation.
Stress Response System
21) Hans Selye
Definition: A researcher who developed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), explaining the body’s response to stress.
Example: His research identified three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
22) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
- Definition: The body's three-phase reaction to stress:
Phase 1 – Alarm: The body reacts to the stressor with immediate physical responses (e.g., "fight or flight").
Phase 2 – Resistance: The body attempts to adapt and cope with the stressor.
Phase 3 – Exhaustion: After prolonged stress, the body becomes depleted and vulnerable.
Example: You feel energized (alarm), try to focus (resistance), but eventually get tired and run down (exhaustion) after months of stress.
Not in Your Textbook
23) Cortisol
Definition: A hormone released in response to stress, which helps the body manage stress.
Example: During a stressful situation, cortisol helps prepare your body to react.
24) Hypertension
Definition: High blood pressure, often caused by chronic stress.
Example: A person under constant work stress might develop hypertension.
25) Eustress vs. Distress
Definition: Eustress is positive, motivating stress, while distress is harmful, overwhelming stress.
Example: A challenging but exciting project may cause eustress, while an overwhelming workload may cause distress.
26) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Definition: Traumatic childhood events that can affect mental and physical health later in life.
Example: A child who experiences neglect might face emotional or physical health issues as an adult.
27) Fight-Flight-Freeze Response
Definition: The body's automatic reaction to perceived threats, where it either fights, flees, or freezes.
Example: If you're confronted with danger, you might feel the urge to either run away or freeze in place.
28) Tend and Befriend Theory
Definition: The idea that, especially for women, stress leads to nurturing behaviors and seeking social support.
Example: Instead of fighting or fleeing, someone under stress might reach out to friends or family for support.
29) Problem-Focused Coping
Definition: Coping by directly addressing the source of stress.
Example: If you're stressed about an exam, you might create a study plan to reduce your anxiety.
30) Emotion-Focused Coping
Definition: Coping by managing emotional reactions rather than changing the stressor.
Example: If you're stressed about a breakup, you might talk to a friend or practice relaxation techniques.
Positive Psychology
31) Positive Psychology
Definition: The study of what makes life fulfilling, focusing on strengths, happiness, and well-being.
Example: Practicing gratitude by writing down things you're thankful for each day.
32) Resilience
Definition: The ability to bounce back from adversity or stress.
Example: After a setback, like losing a job, you quickly adapt and find new opportunities.
33) Gratitude
Definition: A sense of thankfulness and appreciation for positive aspects of life.
Example: Feeling grateful for your family and friends after a tough day.
34) Positive Subjective Experiences
Definition: Experiences that make people feel good or happy.
Example: Feeling joy when spending time with loved ones or enjoying a hobby.
35) Subjective Well-Being
Definition: How individuals experience their lives in terms of happiness and satisfaction.
Example: Someone might feel they have a high quality of life if they are satisfied with their career and personal relationships.
Theories of Emotion
36) Emotion
Definition: A complex psychological state involving physiological responses, thoughts, and behaviors.
Example: Feeling sadness after a loss or excitement before a big event.
37) James-Lange Theory
Definition: The theory that emotions are the result of physical reactions.
Example: You feel fear because your heart is racing and your palms are sweaty.
38) Cannon-Bard Theory
Definition: The theory that emotions and physical reactions occur simultaneously.
Example: You feel fear and experience a racing heart at the same time when confronted with danger.
39) Two-Factor Theory
Definition: The theory that emotion arises from both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.
Example: You might feel excitement when your heart races after a roller coaster ride, and your brain labels it as "fun."
40) Stanley Schachter
Definition: He extended the Two-Factor Theory, emphasizing how we interpret our arousal based on the context.
Example: You might interpret your racing heart as excitement at a concert or as anxiety before a presentation.
Psychotherapy
1. Psychotherapy
Definition: Treatment involving psychological techniques to help someone overcome psychological difficulties.
Example: Talking with a therapist to work through anxiety or depression.
1. Eclectic Approach
Definition: A blend of therapy methods from different schools of psychology.
Example: A therapist might use both cognitive techniques and medications.
Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud
1. Aims of Psychoanalysis
Definition: To bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness.
Example: Uncovering childhood trauma through talk therapy.
1. Methods of Psychoanalysis
  a) Free Association
Definition: Saying whatever comes to mind to uncover unconscious thoughts.
Example: A patient talks freely while the therapist interprets patterns.
1. Psychodynamic Therapy
Definition: Modern version of psychoanalysis focusing on unconscious forces and childhood experiences.
Example: Exploring how past relationships affect current behavior.
Humanistic Therapies – Maslow and Rogers
1. Focus of Humanistic Therapies
Definition: Emphasizes self-growth and self-fulfillment.
Example: Encouraging people to realize their full potential.
1. Client-Centered Therapy (Person-Centered Therapy)
Definition: Therapy that uses unconditional positive regard and empathy to help clients grow.
Example: A therapist listens without judgment to create a safe space.
1. Carl Rogers
Definition: Humanistic psychologist who developed client-centered therapy.
Example: Believed in the importance of genuine, accepting, and empathetic therapy.
1. Active Listening
Definition: Echoing, restating, and clarifying what a client says.
Example: "So you're saying you're feeling anxious at school?"
Behavior Therapies – Skinner
Behavior Therapy
Definition: Uses learning principles to change unwanted behaviors.
Example: Helping a child overcome fear of dogs through exposure.
Classical Conditioning Techniques
a) Systematic Desensitization
Definition: Gradual exposure to a feared object while practicing relaxation.
Example: Slowly exposing someone to spiders while teaching them to stay calm.
b) Exposure Therapy
Definition: Facing fears directly to reduce anxiety.
Example: Taking someone with social anxiety to a crowded place.
c) Progressive Relaxation
Definition: Learning to deeply relax muscles in sequence.
Example: Tensing and releasing muscle groups to manage stress.
d) Aversive Conditioning
Definition: Associating unwanted behavior with discomfort.
Example: Adding a bitter substance to nail polish to stop nail biting.
Operant Conditioning
a) Token Economy
Definition: Using tokens as rewards for good behavior, which can be exchanged for privileges.
Example: A student earns tokens for completing homework, which they can trade for extra recess.
b) Behavior Modification
Definition: Reinforcing desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones.
Example: Rewarding a child for using polite words.
Cognitive Therapies – Aaron Beck & Albert Ellis
Cognitive Therapies
Definition: Focus on changing negative thought patterns.
Example: Challenging the belief that “I always fail” with evidence to the contrary.
Aaron Beck
Definition: Developed cognitive therapy for depression by identifying negative thought patterns.
Example: Encouraging patients to test their negative beliefs.
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT)
Definition: Combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to change thoughts and behaviors.
Example: Changing negative self-talk while practicing new behaviors.
Biological/Biomedical Therapies
Drug Therapies
a) Psychopharmacology
Definition: The study of how drugs affect mental health.
Example: Using medication to treat anxiety.
b) Antipsychotic Drugs
Definition: Treat schizophrenia and severe thought disorders.
Example: Reducing hallucinations in schizophrenia.
c) Antianxiety Drugs
Definition: Reduce anxiety symptoms.
Example: Benzodiazepines like Xanax.
d) Antidepressant Drugs
Definition: Treat depression by altering neurotransmitter levels.
Example:
i) SSRI: Increases serotonin (e.g., Prozac).
ii) Lithium: Stabilizes mood in bipolar disorder.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Definition: A treatment that sends electrical currents through the brain to treat severe depression.
Example: Used when medication doesn’t work.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Definition: Uses magnetic fields to stimulate brain areas linked to depression.
Example: A non-invasive alternative to ECT.
Psychosurgery
Definition: Brain surgery to treat mental illness.
Example:
a) Lobotomy: An outdated surgery that cut brain connections to reduce agitation.
Not in Your Textbook (Therapies)
Biopsychosocial (Eclectic) Therapy
Definition: Combines biological, psychological, and social approaches.
Example: Using therapy, medication, and support groups together.
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
Definition: Albert Ellis’s therapy that challenges irrational beliefs.
Example: Replacing “I must be perfect” with “It’s okay to make mistakes.”
Tardive Dyskinesia
Definition: Involuntary movements, often caused by long-term use of antipsychotic drugs.
Example: Repetitive face twitching.
Lesioning
Definition: Destroying brain tissue to study or treat disorders.
Example: Rarely used today due to ethical concerns.
Cognitive Triad
Definition: Aaron Beck’s concept of three negative thoughts in depression—about self, world, and future.
Example: “I’m worthless,” “The world is unfair,” “Things will never improve.”
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
Definition: A type of CBT that focuses on emotional regulation and relationships.
Example: Used to treat borderline personality disorder.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
Definition: Behavioral therapy, often used for children with autism, to teach positive behaviors.
Example: Rewarding eye contact or communication attempts.
🧠 Unit 6: Learning
🔄 Classical Conditioning
Learning
Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Example: A child learns not to touch a hot stove after getting burned once.
Ivan Pavlov
Definition: A Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.
Example: Pavlov noticed dogs salivated not just at food, but at the sound of footsteps signaling food.
Classical Conditioning
Definition: A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the ability to elicit a similar response.
Example: A dog hears a bell and starts salivating because it’s always followed by food.
John Watson
Definition: A behaviorist who applied classical conditioning to humans, famously known for the Little Albert experiment.
Example: He conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.
Behaviorism
Definition: The view that psychology should study observable behavior, not mental processes.
Example: Focusing on how people behave when rewarded, rather than what they’re thinking.
🧪 Pavlov’s Experiment Terms
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Definition: A natural, automatic response to a stimulus.
Example: Salivating when food is in the mouth.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Definition: A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
Example: Food causing a dog to salivate.
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition: A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Example: A dog salivating to the sound of a bell after conditioning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition: A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, triggers a response.
Example: A bell that causes a dog to salivate after being associated with food.
⚙ Key Processes
Acquisition
Definition: The initial stage of learning when the CS is linked to the UCS.
Example: When the bell starts being paired with food and the dog begins to salivate.
Extinction
Definition: The weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.
Example: The dog stops salivating when the bell rings but no food is given.
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.
Example: The dog salivates again to the bell after not hearing it for a while.
Generalization
Definition: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
Example: The dog salivates to a chime that sounds like the bell.
Discrimination
Definition: The ability to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not signal a UCS.
Example: The dog only salivates to the exact bell sound used in training.
🧠 Updates to Pavlov’s Work
Cognitive Processes
Definition: Mental processes like thinking can influence learning.
Example: A person might not be conditioned if they know the bell has no connection to food.
Biological Predispositions
Definition: Some associations are learned more easily due to biology.
Example: Humans more easily learn to fear snakes than flowers.
Little Albert
Definition: A baby conditioned by John Watson to fear a white rat by pairing it with loud noise.
Example: After conditioning, Albert cried not just at the rat but at anything white and furry.
🧠 Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Definition: A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences (rewards or punishments).
Example: A student studies harder after getting praised for a good grade.
Respondent Behavior
Definition: Automatic responses to stimuli (as in classical conditioning).
Example: Blinking when air is puffed into your eye.
1. Operant Behavior
  Definition: Behavior that operates on the environment and produces consequences.
  Example: A child raising their hand to get called on in class.
🧑‍🔬 B.F. Skinner & Concepts
B.F. Skinner
Definition: A behaviorist who studied operant conditioning using reinforcement and punishment.
Example: Trained rats to press levers in a box for food.
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
Definition: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Example: A dog sits more often when rewarded with a treat.
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
Definition: A box where animals press a lever to receive a reward like food.
Example: A rat in a box learns to press a lever for a food pellet.
Shaping
Definition: Gradually guiding behavior by reinforcing steps toward a desired behavior.
Example: Rewarding a dog for sitting, then for lying down, to teach “roll over.”
Reinforcement
Definition: Any consequence that strengthens behavior.
Example: Giving praise when someone finishes a task.
Positive Reinforcement
Definition: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Giving candy to a child for doing homework.
Negative Reinforcement
Definition: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Example: Taking aspirin to get rid of a headache.
Primary Reinforcer
Definition: Naturally rewarding, meets a biological need.
Example: Food, water, sleep.
1. Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer
  Definition: Gains value through association with primary reinforcer.
  Example: Money (can be used to buy food).
📊 Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement
Definition: Reinforcing the behavior every time it happens.
Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
Definition: Reinforcing behavior only sometimes.
Example: Only rewarding the dog every few times it sits.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR)
Definition: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Example: Getting paid after every 10 items made.
Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR)
Definition: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.
Example: Slot machines.
Fixed-Interval Schedule (FI)
Definition: Reinforcement after a fixed time period.
Example: Getting paid every two weeks.
1. Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)
  Definition: Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.
  Example: Checking for a text message and occasionally getting one.
🚫 Punishment
1. Punishment
  Definition: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
  Example: Getting a speeding ticket to discourage speeding.
🔄 Updating Skinner’s Work
Cognitive Map
Definition: A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Example: A rat remembers a maze after exploring it.
Latent Learning
Definition: Learning that is not immediately shown in behavior until there’s an incentive.
Example: A student learns a math concept but doesn’t show it until the test.
Biological Predispositions
Definition: Biology makes it easier to learn certain behaviors.
Example: Pigeons can learn to peck for food more easily than to flap for it.
👀 Learning by Observation
Observational Learning
Definition: Learning by watching and imitating others.
Example: A child learns how to tie shoes by watching a parent do it.
Modeling
Definition: The process of observing and imitating a behavior.
Example: A teenager starts using the same slang as their favorite influencer.
Mirror Neurons
Definition: Brain cells that activate when performing an action or watching someone else do it.
Example: You feel pain when you see someone stub their toe.
Albert Bandura
Definition: Psychologist known for work on social learning and observational learning.
Example: Conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment.
1. Bandura’s Experiment (Bobo Doll)
  Definition: Kids watched adults beat up a Bobo doll; they imitated the same aggression.
  Example: Demonstrated that children learn social behavior through observation.
🧠 Not in Your Textbook (Still Important!)
Higher-Order Conditioning
Definition: When a neutral stimulus becomes conditioned by being paired with an already conditioned stimulus.
Example: A bell (CS) causes salivation, and a light paired with the bell eventually causes salivation too.
Counterconditioning
Definition: Replacing an unwanted response with a positive one using classical conditioning.
Example: Pairing a feared object with relaxation techniques.
One-Trial Conditioning
Definition: Learning that happens in a single pairing of stimulus and response.
Example: Getting food poisoning once and avoiding that food forever.
Habituation
Definition: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus over time.
Example: No longer noticing a ticking clock after a few minutes.
Instinctive Drift
Definition: The tendency of learned behavior to revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
Example: A trained pig starts rooting with its snout instead of picking up coins.
Learned Helplessness
Definition: Giving up after repeated failures or unavoidable bad outcomes.
Example: A dog stops trying to escape shock after repeated failed attempts.
Vicarious Conditioning
Definition: Learning by seeing the consequences of another person's behavior.
Example: A child avoids swearing after seeing a sibling get punished for it.
Insight Learning
Definition: A sudden realization of how to solve a problem.
Example: A chimp suddenly figures out how to use a stick to reach bananas.
🧠 Sensation
Psychophysics
Definition: The study of how physical stimuli are perceived by the senses.
Example: Investigating how light intensity affects brightness perception.
Absolute Threshold
Definition: The minimum stimulus intensity required for detection 50% of the time.
Example: The smallest sound a person can hear in a quiet room.
Signal Detection Theory
Definition: Theory explaining how and when we detect faint stimuli amid background noise.
Example: Hearing a faint alarm in a noisy room while focusing on a task.
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)
Definition: The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
Example: Noticing the difference in weight when adding a small amount of weight to a dumbbell.
Weber’s Law
Definition: The principle that the just noticeable difference is proportional to the size of the original stimulus.
Example: It’s easier to detect a small change in light intensity when it’s already dim than when it’s bright.
Sensory Adaptation
Definition: Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure.
Example: Not noticing the smell of a perfume after wearing it for a while.
👁 Vision
Transduction
Definition: The process of converting sensory input into neural signals.
Example: Light hitting the retina, which then sends signals to the brain to be interpreted as vision.
Wavelength
Definition: The distance between two consecutive peaks of a wave, determining the color of light.
Example: Short wavelengths produce blue colors, while long wavelengths produce red.
Hue
Definition: The color of light, determined by its wavelength.
Example: A wavelength of around 480 nm gives a blue hue.
Intensity
Definition: The amount of energy in light waves, which influences brightness.
Example: A dim light has low intensity, while a bright light has high intensity.
The Eye
Pupil
Definition: The adjustable opening in the center of the eye that controls the amount of light entering.
Example: In dim light, the pupil dilates to allow more light in.
Iris
Definition: The colored part of the eye, responsible for controlling the pupil’s size.
Example: The iris may dilate or constrict depending on lighting conditions.
Lens
Definition: The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina.
Example: The lens focuses light to produce a clear image on the retina.
Accommodation
Definition: The process by which the lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.
Example: Looking at a distant object, the lens becomes flatter; focusing on something up close, it becomes rounder.
Retina
Definition: The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells.
Example: The retina processes light and sends visual information to the brain via the optic nerve.
Acuity
Definition: The sharpness of vision.
Example: A person with 20/20 vision has normal acuity.
Nearsightedness
Definition: A condition where distant objects are blurred because the eye focuses light in front of the retina.
Example: A nearsighted person may struggle to see a road sign clearly from afar.
Farsightedness
Definition: A condition where close objects are blurred because the eye focuses light behind the retina.
Example: A farsighted person may have trouble reading small print up close.
Rods and Cones
Rods
Definition: Photoreceptors in the retina that detect light and dark and are crucial for night vision.
Example: In dim light, rods allow you to see shapes, though in black and white.
Cones
Definition: Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color and detail in bright light.
Example: Cones are responsible for distinguishing red from green in daylight.
Optic Nerve
Definition: The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
Example: The optic nerve sends signals from the retina to the visual cortex for processing.
Blind Spot
Definition: The point in the retina where the optic nerve exits and no photoreceptor cells are located.
Example: The blind spot is where we cannot detect light, though our brain fills in the missing visual information.
Visual Information Processing
1. Ganglion Cells
  Definition: Nerve cells in the retina that collect visual information and send it to the brain.
  Example: Ganglion cells bundle together to form the optic nerve.
Feature Detector
Definition: Specialized neurons in the brain that respond to specific features of an image, like edges or motion.
Example: Some feature detectors respond only to vertical lines, while others respond to horizontal ones.
Color Vision
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Definition: A theory that suggests the retina has three types of color receptors—red, green, and blue—that combine to create all colors.
Example: Mixing red, green, and blue light can produce white light.
Opponent-Process Theory
Definition: A theory proposing that we perceive color through opposing pairs: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white.
Example: After looking at a red image for a while, you might see green when you look away.
Color Constancy
Definition: The ability to perceive consistent color under varying lighting conditions.
Example: A red apple looks red whether it's under the sunlight or a fluorescent light.
Hearing
Audition
Definition: The sense of hearing.
Example: Hearing a bird chirp is an example of audition.
Sound Waves
Frequency
Definition: The number of complete sound waves that pass a given point per second, determining pitch.
Example: A high-frequency sound, like a whistle, has a high pitch, while a low-frequency sound, like a drumbeat, has a low pitch.
Pitch
Definition: A sound’s perceived highness or lowness, directly related to its frequency.
Example: A soprano singer’s high notes have a high pitch.
Decibels
Definition: A unit of measurement for the intensity of sound.
Example: Normal conversation occurs at about 60 decibels, while a rock concert can reach over 120 decibels.
The Ear
Place Theory
Definition: The theory that the pitch we hear depends on the location of the vibration on the cochlea.
Example: High-frequency sounds stimulate the beginning of the cochlea, while low-frequency sounds stimulate the end.
Frequency Theory
Definition: The theory that pitch is determined by the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve.
Example: A sound with a low frequency causes more frequent impulses, resulting in a lower pitch.
Volley Principle
Definition: A theory explaining how the brain perceives high-pitched sounds, stating that neurons fire in groups to encode the frequency.
Example: High-frequency sounds, like a high-pitched bell, are encoded by groups of neurons firing together.
The Other Senses
Touch
Sense of Touch – Four Distinct Skin Senses
Definition: The sense of touch is divided into four primary sensations: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.
Example: You can feel the pressure of a hug, the warmth of a cup of tea, and the coldness of an ice cube.
Pain
Gate Control Theory
Definition: The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that either blocks or allows pain signals to travel to the brain.
Example: Rubbing a sore spot may close the pain gate, reducing pain perception.
Taste
Five Basic Taste Sensations
Definition: The five basic tastes are sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).
Example: A lemon tastes sour, and a steak might taste umami.
Taste Buds
Definition: Sensory organs on the tongue that detect taste.
Example: Taste buds allow us to distinguish between sweet and bitter tastes.
Taste Receptor Cells
Definition: Specialized cells within taste buds that respond to specific taste stimuli.
Example: Sweet taste receptors respond to sugars, while bitter receptors respond to toxic substances.
Sensory Interaction
Definition: The principle that one sense may influence another.
Example: When you’re sick, food may taste bland because your sense of smell, which contributes to taste, is impaired.
Smell
Olfaction
Definition: The sense of smell.
Example: Smelling a flower is an example of olfaction.
Olfactory Receptor Cells
Definition: Cells in the nose that detect odor molecules.
Example: These cells send signals to the brain, allowing us to recognize scents like vanilla or garlic.
Olfactory Bulb
Definition: A brain structure that processes smells detected by the olfactory receptor cells.
Example: The olfactory bulb helps identify and differentiate odors.
Olfactory Nerve
Definition: The nerve that transmits smell information from the olfactory bulb to the brain.
Example: The olfactory nerve helps us interpret scents in our environment.
Body Position and Movement
Kinesthesis
Definition: The sense of the position and movement of body parts.
Example: You can touch your nose with your eyes closed because of kinesthetic feedback from your body.
Vestibular Sense
Definition: The sense that monitors balance and spatial orientation.
Example: You can tell if you're standing up or tilting your head based on the vestibular sense.
Semicircular Canals
Definition: Structures in the inner ear that help maintain balance by detecting changes in head movement.
Example: When you spin around, the fluid in your semicircular canals helps you sense your rotation.
Vestibular Sacs
Definition: Structures in the inner ear that detect changes in gravity and linear movement.
Example: When you suddenly accelerate in a car, your vestibular sacs help you feel the movement.