Section 1.2
Learning Target: know key vocab
Causation: a change in one variable leads to a change in another variable
Large number of variables in government makes determining causation difficult
Correlation: an apparent connection between variables
Can involve multiple variables without each of the variables being related to each other
Empirical statement: a statement based on provable fact
“The UK voted to leave the EU in 2016.”
Normative statement: a value judgment
“Nigeria should be less reliant on oil.”
Quantitative date: use of observable statistics
Charts, graphs, tables, maps, infographics
Qualitative data: text-based descriptions
Excerpts of laws, constitutions, articles, speeches, infographics
Both types of data can be used on multiple-choice and free response questions
Source analysis: read and analyze texts
Will be used in the multiple-choice section
Section 1.3
The Human Development Index (HDI)
The idea of development used to focus almost exclusively on economics
Wealthier = more developed
In the 21st century there has been greater emphasis on “human capabilities” when examining development
This idea became the basis for the Human Development Index (HDI)
Life expectancy, education, per capita GDP
Gross Domestic Product, GDP Per Capita, and GDP Growth Rate
There are several basic economic indicators used by political scientists
Gross Domestic Product
Total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year
GDP per capita
GDP divided by population; rough measure of standard living
GDP growth rate
The percentage a GDP has grown over a period of time, usually a year
Gini Index/coefficient
A measure of income inequality
The higher the number the greater the inequality
Section 1.4
Economic measurements are not the only way that political scientists measure development.
Political indicators offer a different look at a country
Freedom House is a non-governmental organization that measures the level of democracy in countries from year-to-year.
Scores are based on two main categories- civil rights and political rights
These two categories are broken into several smaller categories.
Countries are ranked as Free (F), Partially Free (PF), Not Free (NF).
Countries rated as Free have undergone democratic consolidation.
Transparency International measures the level of perceived corruption in a country in the Corruption Perception Index
Corruption - the use of official power for personal gain
Grand corruption - Corruption among the political elite
Petty corruption - abuse by everyday government employees
The Fragile States Index attempts to measure the existential danger each state faces
Strong states are able to provide necessary and desired services to their citizens.
Failed states cannot provide necessary services to their citizens.
Some causes include war, famine, natural disaster, economic mismanagement
Often results in a reinforcing cycle
The Fragile States Index considers 12 criteria in four categories
Social, Economic, Political, Cohesion
All criteria are weighed evenly, higher scores mean more instability
States can take action to improve stability
Some of these actions include economic growth, improve education, and democratization
Section 2.1
Learning Targets:
Describe a difference between a state and a nation
Describe the difference between a change in government and regime
What is a state?
States have
Governments that make and implement policy
A permanent population
Territory under their control
International recognition
Often confused by students with subnational governments in the US, such as Colorado.
Regimes, Governments and How they change
Regimes are types of political systems
Liberal democracy, illiberal democracy, authoritarian
Regime change is a change in the fundamental system of government, which does not occur often, sometime through a:
Coup d’etat-an overthrow of government by a small number of people, often military leaders
Revolution-an overthrow of a regime based on widespread popular support
A change in government is a change in leaders
Changes in government happen frequently, especially in democratic regimes
Often the terms nation and state are used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but they have different meaning in political science
A nation is a group of people who shares a sense of belonging and who often have a common language, culture, religion, race, ethnicity, political identity, or set of traditions or aspirations
Nationalism is when a group has a strong sense of identity and believes it has its own destiny
Can often lead to violence and marginalization of minority groups
Section 2.2
Democratic and Authoritarian Regimes
Liberal democracy- a system with free and fair elections that provides citizens with a wide array of civil rights and liberties
Illiberal or hybrid democracy- a system in which elections may be marred by fraud and the state protects some civil rights and liberties but restricts others.
Democratic regimes
Are accountable to the people through
Free and fair elections
The protection of underrepresented groups
Use of quotas
Some democratic regimes use an independent commissions to oversee elections
Mexico and Nigeria
Transparency is the ability of citizens to know what the government is doing
Authoritarian Regime- a system without free and fair elections in which civil rights and liberties are restricted
Totalitarian Regime- a type of authoritarian government where the state controls nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives
Rule of law, Rule by law
A basic difference between democratic and authoritarian states is in the application of the law
Democratic states use rule of law- a clear set of rules where government officials are subject to the same laws and penalties as citizens.
Authoritarian states rely on rule by law- where the law is applied arbitrarily, and government officials are not subject to the same rules and penalties as everyday citizens.
Democratization is the process of transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime
Democratic consolidation is the process by which a regime has developed stable democratic institutions and significant protections of civil liberties and is unlikely to revert to authoritarianism
Democratic backsliding occurs when there is a decline in the quality of democracy, including a decrease in citizen participation, rule of law, transparency, and accountability
Section 2.3
Countries develop power and authority from a variety of sources, including religion, economic performance, constitutions, elections, and the military.
Power is the ability to make someone do something they otherwise would not do.
Authority is the legitimate power a state has over the people within its territory.
A theocracy is a system based on religious rule.
Sovereignty can be threatened or limited by external or internal forces.
Sovereignty can be maintained by force or coercion- the use of force, or the threat of force, to get someone to do something they would otherwise not do.
All states have limits on their sovereignty.
Section 2.4
Legitimacy, which is the citizens’ belief that the government has the right to rule, can be gained in several manners.
Traditional legitimacy-the right based on a society’s long-standing patterns and practices: monarchy, religion, nationalism.
Charismatic legitimacy- the right to rule based on personal virtue, heroism, or other extraordinary circumstances.
Rational-legal legitimacy- the right to rule based on an accepted set of laws
Competitive elections, rule of law
Especially important in democratic regimes
Factors that can improve a state’s stability include
Free and fair elections
Political efficacy
Economic growth
Reducing corruption
Section 2.5
Federal system- a political system in which a state’s power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of government.
Is not as common as unitary systems
Provides government that is closer to the people
Decentralizes power
Limits the power of the national government
Protects minority populations
Subnational power in a federal system can be substantial or limited.
Some federal systems, such as Mexico, treat each of the subnational governments equally.
Others, like Russia, treat the subnational governments differently.
Mexico, Russia, and Nigeria are federal systems.
Unitary System- a political system in which the central government has sole constitutional sovereignty and power
Subnational governments in unitary states do not have sovereignty
They exist at the will of the national government
Some unitary states, like the United Kingdom, have devolved power to their subnational governments
Devolution- granting of powers by the central government to regional governments
China, Iran, and the United Kingdom are unitary systems
Chapter 3-Mexico
Claudia Sheinbaum
Has a doctorate in energy engineering
First women elected as mayor of Mexico City
Affiliated with MORENA party
Policies focus on the environment
Mexican politics are becoming more inclusive
Section 3.1
Sources of Authority and Power
Mexico is a democracy
It is a middle-income country
It faces internal challenges, especially from drug cartels
Mexico was colonized by Spain
Following independence, it became a dictatorship
The Mexican revolution created modern Mexican state
A democratic constitution was adopted in 1917
PRI ruled Mexico until 2000
PRI established system of patron-clientelism
Patron-clientism: rich people provide resources mainly financially to poor people in exchange for support and to influence them to do things they want them to do.
Democratization
Mexico completed a democratic transition in 2000 when a PAN candidate won the presidency
INE oversees elections
Since 2000, power on the national level has changed hands three times
AMLO, of the MORENA party, won the presidency in 2018
Federalism
Mexico’s constitution established a federal system
Federalism has strengthened since 2000
States are receiving more revenue from the national government and generating more revenue on their own
Corruption and human rights abuses plague some state government
Legitimacy and Challenges to the State
Sources of legitimacy include:
The Constitution
INE and elections
Economic performance
Legitimacy is undermined by:
Clientelism
Corruption
Violence
Human rights abuses (Iguala Massacre, for ex.)
Section 3.2
Institutions of Government: Introduction
Mexico has a presidential system of government
The Mexican constitution creates a system of checks and balances
The Mexican president has a significant amount of power
Democratization increased checks on presidential power
Mexico Executive Branch
Mexico’s president is head of state and head of government.
The Mexican president appoints cabinet heads, subject to Senate confirmation.
The president is commander-in-chief.
Mexico’s president can veto legislation and issue decrees that have force of law.
The president is limited to a six-year term, called the sexenio.
The Legislature
Mexico’s legislature is bicameral.
The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house, and the Senate is the Upper House.
The Chamber of Deputies has the power to debate and pass legislation, levy taxes, approve the budget, and certify elections.
The Senate has the power to confirm appointments, ratify treaties, and approve federal intervention in the states.
Congress
Senate:
128 Senators
64 from plurality votes
2 per state and Mexico City
32 by runner-up seat
32 by proportional vote from party lists
6-year terms
2-term limits (2018)
Chamber of Deputies
500 Representatives
300 from plurality vote in SMD/FPTp districts
200 by proportional vote from party lists with 2 percent cutoff
3-year terms
2-term limits (2018)
40 percent candidates = women
Supreme Court
11 Justices
Appointed by president
Approved by Senate
15-year terms
No reappointment
The Judiciary Branch
The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review.
Can review laws and change them
Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate for 15-year terms
Since democratization, the courts have become more autonomous and independent.
Corruption plagues some local courts.
Section 3.3
Electoral System, Political Parties, and Civil Society
Civil society consists of groups outside of the govenrment’’s control.
Mexico encourages free and fair elections, party competition, and citizen participation.
Actions by drug cartels repress civil society.
Political Parties
Mexico has a multi-party system.
PRI controlled politics until 2000.
PAN is the conservative party.
PRD is a party on the left.
MORENA split from PRD and won the presidency in 2018 with a populist appeal.
Elections
The president is elected by a plurality of the vote.
Winning with less than a majority means it may be difficult to claim a mandate.
The Chamber of Deputies is elected through a mixed system with 300 SMD seats and 200 PR seats.
The Senate represents the states and is selected through a mixed system.
50% of candidates in single member districts and PR lists must be female.
Interest Groups and Social Movements
Mexico was corporatist under PRI, with single peak associations representing each important interest.
As Mexico democratizes, pluralism is replacing corporatism.
The Zapatista rebellion was a social movement that challenged the state and called the world’s attention to the plight of indigenous people.
Section 3.4
Political Culture and Participation: Introduction
Mexico’s democratic constitution guarantees basic rights to citizens.
Mexico fosters a political culture where many citizens are active in politics.
Mexico is an illiberal democracy, and human rights abuses have been reported.
Many Mexicans lack trust and confidence.
Civil Rights and Liberties
Although civil rights and liberties are protected on paper, rule of law is weak.
Journalists and human rights activists face threats from drug cartels, and some have been targeted and killed.
Military and police forces have been accused of violating civil liberties, including torture.
Although the law protects women, they face violence and discrimination.
Divisions in Mexico
Mexicans share a strong sense of national identity.
Social cleavages exist along the lines of ethnicity, class, and language.
Political cleavages divide citizens according to their political beliefs.
The North-South Divide
Southern states are the poorest.
Agricultural subsidies benefit the north more than the south due to their ability to grow crops.
NAFTA and the USMCA made it difficult for southern farmers to complete.
The Zappatista rebellion highlighted regional inequality and rural poverty.
Divisions between Indigenous People and Mestizos
The constitution protects the rights of indigenous people.
Indigenous groups have less access to health care and education.
This cleavage coincides with the cleavage between north and south.
Section 3.5
Economic and Social Change and Development: Introduction
Mexico is a middle-income country.
Mexico has a growing middle class.
Mexico has embraced economic liberalization.
Globalization
In the past, Mexico adopted protectionist policies, including import substitution industrialization policies.
Pemex is Mexico’s nationalized oil company, which has been partially privatized.
In the 1980s, Mexico liberalized its economy.
NAFTA reduced trade barriers between Mexico, the United States, and Canada.
The Recent Mexican Economy
The USMCA (United States Mexico Canada Agreement) has replaced NAFTA.
Obrador pledged to increase state control of the economy, build infrastructure, and increase salaries of key workers.
Social Policies
Abortion policy varies by state.
The Prospera program was a conditional cash transfer program which gave families financial aid in exchange for an agreement to send children to school.
Prospera ended in 2021.
Shifting Demographics
Northern Mexico is prosperous.
People are moving from south to north and from rural to urban areas.
Mexicans are moving, legally and unauthorized, to the United States.
Mexico and the Future
Mexico has been a democracy since 2000.
It has a lively civil society.
But drug violence and corruption challenge the state.
Income inequality has increased since economic liberalization.
Time will tell whether Mexico’s democracy will further consolidate.