Unit 1 AP Comp Gov

Section 1.2

Learning Target: know key vocab

  • Causation: a change in one variable leads to a change in another variable

    • Large number of variables in government makes determining causation difficult

  • Correlation: an apparent connection between variables

    • Can involve multiple variables without each of the variables being related to each other

  • Empirical statement: a statement based on provable fact

    • “The UK voted to leave the EU in 2016.”

  • Normative statement: a value judgment

    • “Nigeria should be less reliant on oil.”

  • Quantitative date: use of observable statistics

    • Charts, graphs, tables, maps, infographics

  • Qualitative data: text-based descriptions

    • Excerpts of laws, constitutions,  articles, speeches, infographics

  • Both types of data can be used on multiple-choice and free response questions

  • Source analysis: read and analyze texts

    • Will be used in the multiple-choice section

Section 1.3

The Human Development Index (HDI)

  • The idea of development used to focus almost exclusively on economics

    • Wealthier = more developed

  • In the 21st  century there has been greater emphasis on “human capabilities” when examining development

  • This idea became the basis for the Human Development Index (HDI)

    • Life expectancy, education, per capita GDP

Gross Domestic Product, GDP Per Capita, and GDP Growth Rate

  • There are several basic economic indicators used by political scientists

    • Gross Domestic Product

      • Total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year

    • GDP per capita

      • GDP divided by population; rough measure of standard living

    • GDP growth rate

      • The percentage a GDP has grown over a period of time, usually a year

    • Gini Index/coefficient

      • A measure of income inequality

      • The higher the number the greater the inequality

Section 1.4

  • Economic measurements are not the only way that political scientists measure development.

  • Political indicators offer a different look at a country

  • Freedom House is a non-governmental organization that measures the level of democracy in countries from year-to-year.

    • Scores are based on two main categories- civil rights and political rights

      • These two categories are broken into several smaller categories.

      • Countries are ranked as Free (F), Partially Free (PF), Not Free (NF).

    • Countries rated as Free have undergone democratic consolidation.

  • Transparency International measures the level of perceived corruption in a country in the Corruption Perception Index

    • Corruption - the use of official power for personal gain

      • Grand corruption - Corruption among the political elite

      • Petty corruption - abuse by everyday government employees

  • The Fragile States Index attempts to measure the existential danger each state faces

    • Strong states are able to provide necessary and desired services to their citizens.

    • Failed states cannot provide necessary services to their citizens.

      • Some causes include war, famine, natural disaster, economic mismanagement

      • Often results in a reinforcing cycle

  • The Fragile States Index considers 12 criteria in four categories

    • Social, Economic, Political, Cohesion

    • All criteria are weighed evenly, higher scores mean more instability

  • States can take action to improve stability

    • Some of these actions include economic growth, improve education, and democratization

Section 2.1

Learning Targets:

  • Describe a difference between a state and a nation

  • Describe the difference between a change in government and regime

What is a state?

  • States have

    • Governments that make and implement policy

    • A permanent population 

    • Territory under their control

    • International recognition

  • Often confused by students with subnational governments in the US, such as Colorado.

Regimes, Governments and How they change

  • Regimes are types of political systems

    • Liberal democracy, illiberal democracy, authoritarian

  • Regime change is a change in the fundamental system of government, which does not occur often, sometime through a:

    • Coup d’etat-an overthrow of government by a small number of people, often military leaders

    • Revolution-an overthrow of a regime based on widespread popular support

  • A change in government is a change in leaders

  • Changes in government happen frequently, especially in democratic regimes

  • Often the terms nation and state are used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but they have different meaning in political science

    • A nation is a group of people who shares a sense of belonging and who often have a common language, culture, religion, race, ethnicity, political identity, or set of traditions or aspirations

    • Nationalism is when a group has a strong sense of identity and believes it has its own destiny

      • Can often lead to violence and marginalization of minority groups

Section 2.2

Democratic and Authoritarian Regimes

  • Liberal democracy- a system with free and fair elections that provides citizens with a wide array of civil rights and liberties

  • Illiberal or hybrid democracy- a system in which elections may be marred by fraud and the state protects some civil rights and liberties but restricts others. 

  • Democratic regimes

    • Are accountable to the people through

      • Free and fair elections

      • The protection of underrepresented groups

        • Use of quotas

    • Some democratic regimes use an independent commissions to oversee elections

      • Mexico and Nigeria

    • Transparency is the ability of citizens to know what the government is doing

  • Authoritarian Regime- a system without free and fair elections in which civil rights and liberties are restricted

  • Totalitarian Regime- a type of authoritarian government where the state controls nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives

Rule of law, Rule by law

  • A basic difference between democratic and authoritarian states is in the application of the law

    • Democratic states use rule of law- a clear set of rules where government officials are subject to the same laws and penalties as citizens.

    • Authoritarian states rely on rule by law- where the law is applied arbitrarily, and government officials are not subject to the same rules and penalties as everyday citizens.

  • Democratization is the process of transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime

  • Democratic consolidation is the process by which a regime has developed stable democratic institutions and significant protections of civil liberties and is unlikely to revert to authoritarianism

  • Democratic backsliding occurs when there is a decline in the quality of democracy, including a decrease in citizen participation, rule of law, transparency, and accountability

Section 2.3

  • Countries develop power and authority from a variety of sources, including religion, economic performance, constitutions, elections, and the military.

    • Power is the ability to make someone do something they otherwise would not do.

    • Authority is the legitimate power a state has over the people within its territory.

    • A theocracy is a system based on religious rule.

  • Sovereignty can be threatened or limited by external or internal forces.

  • Sovereignty can be maintained by force or coercion- the use of force, or the threat of force, to get someone to do something they would otherwise not do.

  • All states have limits on their sovereignty.

Section 2.4

  • Legitimacy, which is the citizens’ belief that the government has the right to rule, can be gained in several manners.

    • Traditional legitimacy-the right based on a society’s long-standing patterns and practices: monarchy, religion, nationalism.

    • Charismatic legitimacy- the right to rule based on personal virtue, heroism, or other extraordinary circumstances.

    • Rational-legal legitimacy- the right to rule based on an accepted set of laws

      • Competitive elections, rule of law

      • Especially important in democratic regimes

  • Factors that can improve a state’s stability include

    • Free and fair elections

    • Political efficacy

    • Economic growth

    • Reducing corruption

Section 2.5

  • Federal system- a political system in which a state’s power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of government.

    • Is not as common as unitary systems

    • Provides government that is closer to the people

    • Decentralizes power

    • Limits the power of the national government

    • Protects minority populations

  • Subnational power in a federal system can be substantial or limited.

  • Some federal systems, such as Mexico, treat each of the subnational governments equally.

  • Others, like Russia, treat the subnational governments differently.

  • Mexico, Russia, and Nigeria are federal systems.

  • Unitary System- a political system in which the central government has sole constitutional sovereignty and power

  • Subnational governments in unitary states do not have sovereignty

    • They exist at the will of the national government

  • Some unitary states, like the United Kingdom, have devolved power to their subnational governments

  • Devolution- granting of powers by the central government to regional governments

  • China, Iran, and the United Kingdom are unitary systems

Chapter 3-Mexico

Claudia Sheinbaum

  • Has a doctorate in energy engineering

  • First women elected as mayor of Mexico City

  • Affiliated with MORENA party

  • Policies focus on the environment 

  • Mexican politics are becoming more inclusive

Section 3.1

Sources of Authority and Power

  • Mexico is a democracy

  • It is a middle-income country

  • It faces internal challenges, especially from drug cartels

  • Mexico was colonized by Spain

  • Following independence, it became a dictatorship

  • The Mexican revolution created modern Mexican state

  • A democratic constitution was adopted in 1917

  • PRI ruled Mexico until 2000

  • PRI established system of patron-clientelism

  • Patron-clientism: rich people provide resources mainly financially to poor people in exchange for support and to influence them to do things they want them to do.

Democratization

  • Mexico completed a democratic transition in 2000 when a PAN candidate won the presidency

  • INE oversees elections

  • Since 2000, power on the national level has changed hands three times

  • AMLO, of the MORENA party, won the presidency in 2018

Federalism

  • Mexico’s constitution established a federal system

  • Federalism has strengthened since 2000

  • States are receiving more revenue from the national government and generating more revenue on their own

  • Corruption and human rights abuses plague some state government

Legitimacy and Challenges to the State

Sources of legitimacy include:

  • The Constitution

  • INE and elections

  • Economic performance

Legitimacy is undermined by:

  • Clientelism 

  • Corruption 

  • Violence

  • Human rights abuses (Iguala Massacre, for ex.)

Section 3.2

Institutions of Government: Introduction

  • Mexico has a presidential system of government

  • The Mexican constitution creates a system of checks and balances

  • The Mexican president has a significant amount of power

  • Democratization increased checks on presidential power

Mexico Executive Branch

  • Mexico’s president is head of state and head of government.

  • The Mexican president appoints cabinet heads, subject to Senate confirmation.

  • The president is commander-in-chief.

  • Mexico’s president can veto legislation and issue decrees that have force of law.

  • The president is limited to a six-year term, called the sexenio.

The Legislature

  • Mexico’s legislature is bicameral.

  • The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house, and the Senate is the Upper House.

  • The Chamber of Deputies has the power to debate and pass legislation, levy taxes, approve the budget, and certify elections.

  • The Senate has the power to confirm appointments, ratify treaties, and approve federal intervention in the states.

Congress

Senate:

  • 128 Senators

  • 64 from plurality votes 

  • 2 per state and Mexico City

  • 32 by runner-up seat

  • 32 by proportional vote from party lists

  • 6-year terms

  • 2-term limits (2018)

Chamber of Deputies

  • 500 Representatives

  • 300 from plurality vote in SMD/FPTp districts

  • 200 by proportional vote from party lists with 2 percent cutoff

  • 3-year terms

  • 2-term limits (2018)

  • 40 percent candidates = women

Supreme Court

  • 11 Justices

  • Appointed by president

  • Approved by Senate

  • 15-year terms

  • No reappointment

The Judiciary Branch

  • The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review.

    • Can review laws and change them

  • Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate for 15-year terms

  • Since democratization, the courts have become more autonomous and independent.

  • Corruption plagues some local courts.

Section 3.3 

Electoral System, Political Parties, and Civil Society

  • Civil society consists of groups outside of the govenrment’’s control.

  • Mexico encourages free and fair elections, party competition, and citizen participation.

  • Actions by drug cartels repress civil society.

Political Parties

  • Mexico has a multi-party system.

  • PRI controlled politics until 2000.

  • PAN is the conservative party.

  • PRD is a party on the left.

  • MORENA split from PRD and won the presidency in 2018 with a populist appeal.

Elections

  • The president is elected by a plurality of the vote.

  • Winning with less than a majority means it may be difficult to claim a mandate.

  • The Chamber of Deputies is elected through a mixed system with 300 SMD seats and 200 PR seats.

  • The Senate represents the states and is selected through a mixed system.

  • 50% of candidates in single member districts and PR lists must be female.

Interest Groups and Social Movements

  • Mexico was corporatist under PRI, with single peak associations representing each important interest.

  • As Mexico democratizes, pluralism is replacing corporatism.

  • The Zapatista rebellion was a social movement that challenged the state and called the world’s attention to the plight of indigenous people.

Section 3.4

Political Culture and Participation: Introduction

  • Mexico’s democratic constitution guarantees basic rights to citizens.

  • Mexico fosters a political culture where many citizens are active in politics.

  • Mexico is an illiberal democracy, and human rights abuses have been reported.

  • Many Mexicans lack trust and confidence.

Civil Rights and Liberties

  • Although civil rights and liberties are protected on paper, rule of law is weak.

  • Journalists and human rights activists face threats from drug cartels, and some have been targeted and killed.

  • Military and police forces have been accused of violating civil liberties, including torture.

  • Although the law protects women, they face violence and discrimination.

Divisions in Mexico

  • Mexicans share a strong sense of national identity.

  • Social cleavages exist along the lines of ethnicity, class, and language.

  • Political cleavages divide citizens according to their political beliefs.

The North-South Divide

  • Southern states are the poorest.

  • Agricultural subsidies benefit the north more than the south due to their ability to grow crops.

  • NAFTA and the USMCA made it difficult for southern farmers to complete.

  • The Zappatista rebellion highlighted regional inequality and rural poverty.

Divisions between Indigenous People and Mestizos

  • The constitution protects the rights of indigenous people.

  • Indigenous groups have less access to health care and education.

  • This cleavage coincides with the cleavage between north and south.

Section 3.5 

Economic and Social Change and Development: Introduction

  • Mexico is a middle-income country.

  • Mexico has a growing middle class.

  • Mexico has embraced economic liberalization.

Globalization

  • In the past, Mexico adopted protectionist policies, including import substitution industrialization policies.

  • Pemex is Mexico’s nationalized oil company, which has been partially privatized.

  • In the 1980s, Mexico liberalized its economy. 

  • NAFTA reduced trade barriers between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. 

The Recent Mexican Economy

  • The USMCA (United States Mexico Canada Agreement) has replaced NAFTA.

  • Obrador pledged to increase state control of the economy, build infrastructure, and increase salaries of key workers.

Social Policies

  • Abortion policy varies by state.

  • The Prospera program was a conditional cash transfer program which gave families financial aid in exchange for an agreement to send children to school.

  • Prospera ended in 2021.

Shifting Demographics

  • Northern Mexico is prosperous.

  • People are moving from south to north and from rural to urban areas.

  • Mexicans are moving, legally and unauthorized, to the United States.

Mexico and the Future

  • Mexico has been a democracy since 2000.

  • It has a lively civil society.

  • But drug violence and corruption challenge the state.

  • Income inequality has increased since economic liberalization.

  • Time will tell whether Mexico’s democracy will further consolidate.

robot