Unit 1 AP Comp Gov

Section 1.2

Learning Target: know key vocab

• Causation: a change in one variable leads to a change in another variable

  • Large number of variables in government makes determining causation difficult

• Correlation: an apparent connection between variables

  • Can involve multiple variables without each of the variables being related to each other

• Empirical statement: a statement based on provable fact

  • “The UK voted to leave the EU in 2016.”

• Normative statement: a value judgment

  • “Nigeria should be less reliant on oil.”

• Quantitative date: use of observable statistics

  • Charts, graphs, tables, maps, infographics

• Qualitative data: text-based descriptions

  • Excerpts of laws, constitutions,  articles, speeches, infographics

• Both types of data can be used on multiple-choice and free response questions

• Source analysis: read and analyze texts

  • Will be used in the multiple-choice section

Section 1.3

The Human Development Index (HDI)

• The idea of development used to focus almost exclusively on economics

  • Wealthier = more developed

• In the 21st  century there has been greater emphasis on “human capabilities” when examining development

• This idea became the basis for the Human Development Index (HDI)

  • Life expectancy, education, per capita GDP

Gross Domestic Product, GDP Per Capita, and GDP Growth Rate

• There are several basic economic indicators used by political scientists

  • Gross Domestic Product

    • Total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year

  • GDP per capita

    • GDP divided by population; rough measure of standard living

  • GDP growth rate

    • The percentage a GDP has grown over a period of time, usually a year

  • Gini Index/coefficient

    • A measure of income inequality

    • The higher the number the greater the inequality

Section 1.4

• Economic measurements are not the only way that political scientists measure development.

• Political indicators offer a different look at a country

• Freedom House is a non-governmental organization that measures the level of democracy in countries from year-to-year.

  • Scores are based on two main categories- civil rights and political rights

    • These two categories are broken into several smaller categories.

    • Countries are ranked as Free (F), Partially Free (PF), Not Free (NF).

  • Countries rated as Free have undergone democratic consolidation.

• Transparency International measures the level of perceived corruption in a country in the Corruption Perception Index

  • Corruption - the use of official power for personal gain

    • Grand corruption - Corruption among the political elite

    • Petty corruption - abuse by everyday government employees

• The Fragile States Index attempts to measure the existential danger each state faces

  • Strong states are able to provide necessary and desired services to their citizens.

  • Failed states cannot provide necessary services to their citizens.

    • Some causes include war, famine, natural disaster, economic mismanagement

    • Often results in a reinforcing cycle

• The Fragile States Index considers 12 criteria in four categories

  • Social, Economic, Political, Cohesion

  • All criteria are weighed evenly, higher scores mean more instability

• States can take action to improve stability

  • Some of these actions include economic growth, improve education, and democratization

Section 2.1

Learning Targets:

• Describe a difference between a state and a nation

• Describe the difference between a change in government and regime

What is a state?

• States have

  • Governments that make and implement policy

  • A permanent population 

  • Territory under their control

  • International recognition

• Often confused by students with subnational governments in the US, such as Colorado.

Regimes, Governments and How they change

• Regimes are types of political systems

  • Liberal democracy, illiberal democracy, authoritarian

• Regime change is a change in the fundamental system of government, which does not occur often, sometime through a:

  • Coup d’etat-an overthrow of government by a small number of people, often military leaders

  • Revolution-an overthrow of a regime based on widespread popular support

• A change in government is a change in leaders

• Changes in government happen frequently, especially in democratic regimes

• Often the terms nation and state are used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but they have different meaning in political science

  • A nation is a group of people who shares a sense of belonging and who often have a common language, culture, religion, race, ethnicity, political identity, or set of traditions or aspirations

  • Nationalism is when a group has a strong sense of identity and believes it has its own destiny

    • Can often lead to violence and marginalization of minority groups

Section 2.2

Democratic and Authoritarian Regimes

• Liberal democracy- a system with free and fair elections that provides citizens with a wide array of civil rights and liberties

• Illiberal or hybrid democracy- a system in which elections may be marred by fraud and the state protects some civil rights and liberties but restricts others. 

• Democratic regimes

  • Are accountable to the people through

    • Free and fair elections

    • The protection of underrepresented groups

      • Use of quotas

  • Some democratic regimes use an independent commissions to oversee elections

    • Mexico and Nigeria

  • Transparency is the ability of citizens to know what the government is doing

• Authoritarian Regime- a system without free and fair elections in which civil rights and liberties are restricted

• Totalitarian Regime- a type of authoritarian government where the state controls nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives

Rule of law, Rule by law

• A basic difference between democratic and authoritarian states is in the application of the law

  • Democratic states use rule of law- a clear set of rules where government officials are subject to the same laws and penalties as citizens.

  • Authoritarian states rely on rule by law- where the law is applied arbitrarily, and government officials are not subject to the same rules and penalties as everyday citizens.

• Democratization is the process of transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime

• Democratic consolidation is the process by which a regime has developed stable democratic institutions and significant protections of civil liberties and is unlikely to revert to authoritarianism

• Democratic backsliding occurs when there is a decline in the quality of democracy, including a decrease in citizen participation, rule of law, transparency, and accountability

Section 2.3

• Countries develop power and authority from a variety of sources, including religion, economic performance, constitutions, elections, and the military.

  • Power is the ability to make someone do something they otherwise would not do.

  • Authority is the legitimate power a state has over the people within its territory.

  • A theocracy is a system based on religious rule.

• Sovereignty can be threatened or limited by external or internal forces.

• Sovereignty can be maintained by force or coercion- the use of force, or the threat of force, to get someone to do something they would otherwise not do.

• All states have limits on their sovereignty.

Section 2.4

• Legitimacy, which is the citizens’ belief that the government has the right to rule, can be gained in several manners.

  • Traditional legitimacy-the right based on a society’s long-standing patterns and practices: monarchy, religion, nationalism.

  • Charismatic legitimacy- the right to rule based on personal virtue, heroism, or other extraordinary circumstances.

  • Rational-legal legitimacy- the right to rule based on an accepted set of laws

    • Competitive elections, rule of law

    • Especially important in democratic regimes

• Factors that can improve a state’s stability include

  • Free and fair elections

  • Political efficacy

  • Economic growth

  • Reducing corruption

Section 2.5

• Federal system- a political system in which a state’s power is legally and constitutionally divided among more than one level of government.

  • Is not as common as unitary systems

  • Provides government that is closer to the people

  • Decentralizes power

  • Limits the power of the national government

  • Protects minority populations

• Subnational power in a federal system can be substantial or limited.

• Some federal systems, such as Mexico, treat each of the subnational governments equally.

• Others, like Russia, treat the subnational governments differently.

• Mexico, Russia, and Nigeria are federal systems.

• Unitary System- a political system in which the central government has sole constitutional sovereignty and power

• Subnational governments in unitary states do not have sovereignty

  • They exist at the will of the national government

• Some unitary states, like the United Kingdom, have devolved power to their subnational governments

• Devolution- granting of powers by the central government to regional governments

• China, Iran, and the United Kingdom are unitary systems

Chapter 3-Mexico

Claudia Sheinbaum

• Has a doctorate in energy engineering

• First women elected as mayor of Mexico City

• Affiliated with MORENA party

• Policies focus on the environment 

• Mexican politics are becoming more inclusive

Section 3.1

Sources of Authority and Power

• Mexico is a democracy

• It is a middle-income country

• It faces internal challenges, especially from drug cartels

• Mexico was colonized by Spain

• Following independence, it became a dictatorship

• The Mexican revolution created modern Mexican state

• A democratic constitution was adopted in 1917

• PRI ruled Mexico until 2000

• PRI established system of patron-clientelism

• Patron-clientism: rich people provide resources mainly financially to poor people in exchange for support and to influence them to do things they want them to do.

Democratization

• Mexico completed a democratic transition in 2000 when a PAN candidate won the presidency

• INE oversees elections

• Since 2000, power on the national level has changed hands three times

• AMLO, of the MORENA party, won the presidency in 2018

Federalism

• Mexico’s constitution established a federal system

• Federalism has strengthened since 2000

• States are receiving more revenue from the national government and generating more revenue on their own

• Corruption and human rights abuses plague some state government

Legitimacy and Challenges to the State

Sources of legitimacy include:

• The Constitution

• INE and elections

• Economic performance

Legitimacy is undermined by:

• Clientelism 

• Corruption 

• Violence

• Human rights abuses (Iguala Massacre, for ex.)

Section 3.2

Institutions of Government: Introduction

• Mexico has a presidential system of government

• The Mexican constitution creates a system of checks and balances

• The Mexican president has a significant amount of power

• Democratization increased checks on presidential power

Mexico Executive Branch

• Mexico’s president is head of state and head of government.

• The Mexican president appoints cabinet heads, subject to Senate confirmation.

• The president is commander-in-chief.

• Mexico’s president can veto legislation and issue decrees that have force of law.

• The president is limited to a six-year term, called the sexenio.

The Legislature

• Mexico’s legislature is bicameral.

• The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house, and the Senate is the Upper House.

• The Chamber of Deputies has the power to debate and pass legislation, levy taxes, approve the budget, and certify elections.

• The Senate has the power to confirm appointments, ratify treaties, and approve federal intervention in the states.

Congress

Senate:

• 128 Senators

• 64 from plurality votes 

• 2 per state and Mexico City

• 32 by runner-up seat

• 32 by proportional vote from party lists

• 6-year terms

• 2-term limits (2018)

Chamber of Deputies

• 500 Representatives

• 300 from plurality vote in SMD/FPTp districts

• 200 by proportional vote from party lists with 2 percent cutoff

• 3-year terms

• 2-term limits (2018)

• 40 percent candidates = women

Supreme Court

• 11 Justices

• Appointed by president

• Approved by Senate

• 15-year terms

• No reappointment

The Judiciary Branch

• The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review.

  • Can review laws and change them

• Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate for 15-year terms

• Since democratization, the courts have become more autonomous and independent.

• Corruption plagues some local courts.

Section 3.3 

Electoral System, Political Parties, and Civil Society

• Civil society consists of groups outside of the govenrment’’s control.

• Mexico encourages free and fair elections, party competition, and citizen participation.

• Actions by drug cartels repress civil society.

Political Parties

• Mexico has a multi-party system.

• PRI controlled politics until 2000.

• PAN is the conservative party.

• PRD is a party on the left.

• MORENA split from PRD and won the presidency in 2018 with a populist appeal.

Elections

• The president is elected by a plurality of the vote.

• Winning with less than a majority means it may be difficult to claim a mandate.

• The Chamber of Deputies is elected through a mixed system with 300 SMD seats and 200 PR seats.

• The Senate represents the states and is selected through a mixed system.

• 50% of candidates in single member districts and PR lists must be female.

Interest Groups and Social Movements

• Mexico was corporatist under PRI, with single peak associations representing each important interest.

• As Mexico democratizes, pluralism is replacing corporatism.

• The Zapatista rebellion was a social movement that challenged the state and called the world’s attention to the plight of indigenous people.

Section 3.4

Political Culture and Participation: Introduction

• Mexico’s democratic constitution guarantees basic rights to citizens.

• Mexico fosters a political culture where many citizens are active in politics.

• Mexico is an illiberal democracy, and human rights abuses have been reported.

• Many Mexicans lack trust and confidence.

Civil Rights and Liberties

• Although civil rights and liberties are protected on paper, rule of law is weak.

• Journalists and human rights activists face threats from drug cartels, and some have been targeted and killed.

• Military and police forces have been accused of violating civil liberties, including torture.

• Although the law protects women, they face violence and discrimination.

Divisions in Mexico

• Mexicans share a strong sense of national identity.

• Social cleavages exist along the lines of ethnicity, class, and language.

• Political cleavages divide citizens according to their political beliefs.

The North-South Divide

• Southern states are the poorest.

• Agricultural subsidies benefit the north more than the south due to their ability to grow crops.

• NAFTA and the USMCA made it difficult for southern farmers to complete.

• The Zappatista rebellion highlighted regional inequality and rural poverty.

Divisions between Indigenous People and Mestizos

• The constitution protects the rights of indigenous people.

• Indigenous groups have less access to health care and education.

• This cleavage coincides with the cleavage between north and south.

Section 3.5 

Economic and Social Change and Development: Introduction

• Mexico is a middle-income country.

• Mexico has a growing middle class.

• Mexico has embraced economic liberalization.

Globalization

• In the past, Mexico adopted protectionist policies, including import substitution industrialization policies.

• Pemex is Mexico’s nationalized oil company, which has been partially privatized.

• In the 1980s, Mexico liberalized its economy. 

• NAFTA reduced trade barriers between Mexico, the United States, and Canada. 

The Recent Mexican Economy

• The USMCA (United States Mexico Canada Agreement) has replaced NAFTA.

• Obrador pledged to increase state control of the economy, build infrastructure, and increase salaries of key workers.

Social Policies

• Abortion policy varies by state.

• The Prospera program was a conditional cash transfer program which gave families financial aid in exchange for an agreement to send children to school.

• Prospera ended in 2021.

Shifting Demographics

• Northern Mexico is prosperous.

• People are moving from south to north and from rural to urban areas.

• Mexicans are moving, legally and unauthorized, to the United States.

Mexico and the Future

• Mexico has been a democracy since 2000.

• It has a lively civil society.

• But drug violence and corruption challenge the state.

• Income inequality has increased since economic liberalization.

• Time will tell whether Mexico’s democracy will further consolidate.