Final Exam Review

Chapter 1

1. State the mind–brain problem and contrast monism with dualism.

2. List three points that are important to remember from this text.

3. Give examples of physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional explanations of behavior.

4. Discuss the ethical issues of research with laboratory animals.

5. Describe neurons and glia, the cells that constitute the nervous system.

6. Contrast axons with dendrites.

7. Summarize how the blood–brain barrier relates to protection and nutrition of neurons.

8. State the chemicals necessary for the brain’s nutrition.

   • Korsakoff’s?

     • prolonged thiamine deficiency is the cause, commonly due to chronic alcoholism

     • memory impairments

     • (13th ed.) similar to those w/ damg in the prefrontal cortex

9. Describe the importance of bacteria in the intestines.

10. Contrast action potentials with electrical transmission.

    • action potentials?

      • messages from axons

      • any depolarization (reducing polarization toward 0 across the membrane; decrease - charge) that reaches/passes the threshold produces one

      • results in opening Na channels, Na flows into the cell, making the internal charge drop rapidly to positive, but the concentration of Na is still greater on the outside of the cell. The Na gates have to close to stop the flow.

11. Explain what causes the resting potential of a neuron.

    • Na channels?

      • Na, K, Ca, & Cl pass thru gates.

      • At rest, gates are closed & almost no Na passes through, while K has a slightly greater flow

12. Discuss how the movement of sodium and potassium ions produces the action potential and recovery after it.

    • Na channels?

      • Na, K, Ca, & Cl pass thru gates.

      • At rest, gates are closed & almost no Na passes through, while K has a slightly greater flow

      • When the neuron is at rest, 2 forces push Na into the cell:

        • Na = +, inside the cell = -; attraction (electrical charge gradient

        • Concentration gradient, Na concentration = greater outside, enter the cell quickly once Na channels are closed

      • K = +, inside the cell = -; attraction.

      • Concentration gradient; K concentration = higher inside, forces it out of the cell

13. State the all-or-none law of the action potential.

14. Explain how the action potential propagates along the axon.

15. Describe the importance of the refractory period, the myelin sheath, and local neurons.

Key Terms:

• Biological psychology: the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience

• Dualism: the idea that minds are one type of substance and matter is another

• Mind-body problem: how and why certain types of brain activity are conscious

• Monism: mental activity and certain types of brain activity are inseparable

• Physiological explanation: relates a behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs

• Ontogenetic explanation: describes how something develops

• Evolutionary explanation: reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure or behavior

• Functional explanation: describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did

• Neurons: receive information and transmit it to other cells

• Membrane: a structure that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment.

• Nucleus: structure that contains the chromosomes

• Ribosomes: structures that synthesize new protein molecules

• Endoplasmic reticulum: a network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations

• Mitochondrion: performs metabolic activities, providing the energy that the cell use for all activities

• Motor neuron: receives excitation through its dendrites and conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle

• Sensory neuron: is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation

• Dendrites: are branching fibers that get narrower near their ends

• Dendritic spines: short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses

• Cell body or soma: contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria

• Axon: conveys an impulse to other neurons, an organ, or a muscle

• Myelin sheath: an insulating material that covers axons

• Nodes of Ranvier: interruptions in the myelin sheaths

• Presynaptic terminal: swellings at the ends of axons

• Afferent axon: brings information into a structure

• Efferent axon: carries information away from a structure

• Interneuron or intrinsic neuron: a cell’s dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a single structure

• Glia: a Greek word meaning “glue”

• Astrocytes: star-shaped glia

  • types of glia, waste removal?

    • astrocytes synchronize axon activity and work with microglia to prune synapses & remove waste

• Microglia: act as part of the immune system, removing viruses and fungi from the brain

• Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells: build the myelin sheaths that surround and insulate certain vertebrate axons

• Radial glia: guide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development

• Blood–brain barrier: the mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain

• Electrical gradient, also known as polarization: a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell

• Resting potential: The inside of the membrane has a slight negative charge compared to the outside, mainly because of negatively charged proteins inside the cell. This difference in voltage is called the resting potential

• Selectively permeable: the cell membrane is selectively permeable, letting some chemicals pass more freely than others

• Sodium–potassium pump: a protein complex that repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions in.

• Concentration gradient: the difference in distribution of ions across the membrane.

• Action potentials: when an axon send a message

• Hyperpolarization: an increase the negative charge of a neuron

• Threshold: the point at which the cell membrane opens

• All-or-none law: the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it, provided that the stimulus reaches the threshold

• Voltage-gated channels: open or close depending on the voltage across the membrane

• Local anesthetic: drugs, such as Novocain and Xylocaine, attach to the sodium channels of the membrane, preventing sodium ions from entering.

• Propagation of the action potential: describes the transmission of an action potential down an axon

• Absolute refractory period: the time when the membrane cannot produce an action potential, regardless of the stimulation

• Relative refractory period: when a stronger-than-usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential

• Saltatory conduction: from the Latin word saltare, meaning “to jump”

• Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

Chapter 2

1. Describe how Charles Sherrington used behavioral observations to infer the major properties of synapses.

2. Explain how EPSPs and IPSPs produce temporal and spatial summation.

3. Discuss the importance of inhibition in the nervous system.

   • flexor & extensor muscles, antagonistic?

     • flexor muscles activate in one leg, the extensor muscles contract in the other(s). interneurons also inhibit the extensor muscles in the one leg, and the flexor muscles in the other(s)

4. List and explain the sequence of events at a synapse, from synthesis of neurotransmitters, through stimulation of receptors, to the disposition of the transmitter molecules.

5. Distinguish between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors and explain how each of them works.

6. Discuss how certain drugs affect behavior by their effects at synapses.    

   • endorphins, similar to?

     • a neuropeptide

     • bind to the same receptors as opiates

     • endogenous morphines

7. List some hormones and their effects.

Key Terms:

• Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): graded depolarization

• Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane

• Postsynaptic neuron: neuron that receives transmission from another neuron

• Presynaptic neuron: neuron that delivers transmission to another neuron

• Reflex arc: a circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response

• Reflexes: automatic muscular responses to stimuli

• Spatial summation: combination of effects of activity from two or more synapses onto a single neuron

• Spontaneous firing rate: a periodic production of action potentials even without synaptic input

• Synapse: a specialized gap as a point of communication between two neurons

• Temporal summation: a cumulative effect of repeated stimuli within a brief time

• Acetylcholine: a chemical similar to an amino acid, except that it includes an N(CH3)3 group instead of an NH2, group

• Amino acids: acids containing an amine group

• Amphetamine: a drug that blocks reuptake of dopamine and other neurotransmitters

• Anterior pituitary: portion of the pituitary gland, composed of glandular tissue

• Autoreceptors: receptors that respond to the released transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and release

• Cannabinoids: chemicals related to THC

• Catecholamines: compounds that contain a catechol and an amine group

• Cocaine: a drug that blocks reuptake of dopamine

• Endocrine glands: hormone-producing glands

• Exocytosis: a release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft

• G protein: a protein coupled to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), an energy-storing molecule

• Gap junction: a direct contact of one neuron with another, enabling electrical transmission

• Gases: one of the categories of neurotransmitters, including nitric oxide and possibly others

• Hallucinogenic drugs: drugs that distort perception

• Hormone: chemical that is secreted by cells in one part of the body and conveyed by the blood to influence other cells

• Ionotropic effects: synaptic effects that depend on the rapid opening of some kind of gate in the membrane

• Ligand-gated channels: when the neurotransmitter attaches, it opens a channel

• Metabotropic effects: a sequence of metabolic reactions that produce slow and long-lasting effects at a synapse

• Methylphenidate: stimulant drug prescribed for ADHD that increases the stimulation of dopamine synapses by blocking the reuptake of dopamine by the presynaptic neuron

• Monoamines: chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids

• Neuromodulators: chains of amino acids

• Neuropeptides: chains of amino acids

• Neurotransmitters: chemicals released by neurons that affect other neurons

• Nitric oxide: a gas released by many small local neurons

• Opiate drugs: drugs derived from the opium poppy

• Oxytocin: hormone released by posterior pituitary; important for sexual and parental behaviors

• Pituitary gland: an endocrine gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus

• Posterior pituitary: portion of the pituitary gland, which releases hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus

• Purines: a category of chemicals including adenosine and several of its derivatives

• Releasing hormones: stimulate or inhibit the release of other hormones

• Reuptake: reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the presynaptic terminal

• Second messenger: a chemical that, when activated by a neurotransmitter, initiates communication to many areas within the neuron

• Synaptic cleft: the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

• Transmitter-gated channels: ion channel that opens temporarily when a neurotransmitter binds to it

• Transporters: special membrane protein where reuptake occurs in the neurotransmitter binds to it

• Vasopressin: (antidiuretic hormone) hormone released by posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure and enables kidneys to conserve water

• Vesicles: tiny nearly spherical packets filled with neurotransmitter

Chapter 3

1. Define the terms used to describe brain anatomy.

2. Describe the structure of the spinal cord.

3. Describe the structure and functions of the autonomic nervous system.

4. List the major components of the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

   • olfactory receptors?

     • the olfactory system takes info from the receptors →olfactory bulbs→ directly to cerebral cortex

5. Distinguish between the laminae and columns of the cortex.

6. List the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and describe their principal functions.

   • hippocampus?

     • between the thalamus and cerebral cortex, located toward the posterior of the forebrain

     • important for memories (esp individual events)

7. Describe the binding problem and explain its theoretical importance.

8. Describe major methods for studying the relationship between brain activity and behavior.

   • CAT scan, what rays/waves?

     • uses x-rays that pass through the head, detecting the dye in the blood

9. Note the strengths and limitations of each method

Key Terms:

• Amygdala: temporal lobe structure important for evaluating emotional information

• Autonomic nervous system: part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the heart, intestines, and other organs

• Basal ganglia: a group of subcortical forebrain structures lateral to the thalamus

• Brainstem: the medulla, pons, midbrain, and central structure of the forebrain

• Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the spinal cord

• Cerebellum: highly folded hindbrain structure that is important for behaviors that depend on accurate timing

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a clear fluid similar to blood plasma produced by choroid plexus in the brain ventricles

• Cranial nerves: nerves that control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and much of the parasympathetic output to the organs

• Dorsal: located toward the back

• Dorsal root ganglia: clusters of sensory neurons outside the spinal cord

• Enteric nervous system: controls the digestive system

• Forebrain: most anterior part of the brain; consists of two cerebral hemispheres

• Gray matter: areas of the nervous system that are densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites

• Hindbrain: the posterior part of the brain

• Hippocampus: a large structure located toward the posterior of the forebrain, between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex

• Hypothalamus: small area near the base of the brain, ventral to the thalamus

• Inferior colliculus: swelling on the surface of the tectum that contributes to hearing

• Medulla: hindbrain structure located just above the spinal cord; could be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord

• Meninges: membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord

• Midbrain: middle part of the brain

• Neuroanatomy: the anatomy of the nervous system

• Nucleus basalis: a forebrain structure that lies on the ventral surface; receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia; sends axons to areas in the cerebral cortex

• Parasympathetic nervous system: system of nerves that facilitate vegetative, nonemergency responses by the body’s organs

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves outside the brain and spinal cord

• Pituitary gland: an endocrine gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus

• Pons: hindbrain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the medulla

• Somatic nervous system: part of the PNS that consists of the axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles

• Spinal cord: part of the CNS; it communicates with all the sense organs and muscles except those of the head

• Substantia nigra: a midbrain structure that gives rise to a pathway releasing dopamine

• Superior colliculus: swelling on either side of the tectum; important to visual processing

• Sympathetic nervous system: a network of nerves that prepare the organs for vigorous activity

• Tectum: roof of the midbrain

• Tegmentum: intermediate level of the midbrain

• Thalamus: a pair of structures in the center of the forebrain

• Ventral: toward the stomach

• Ventricles: four fluid-filled cavities within the brain

• White matter: area of the nervous system consisting of myelinated axons

• Anterior commissure: bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

• Binding problem: question of how various brain areas produce a perception of a single object

• Central sulcus: one of the deepest grooves in the surface of the cerebral cortex

• Cerebral cortex: layers of cells on the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere of the forebrain

• Columns: collection of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex and to its laminae

• Corpus callosum: bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

• Default network: areas that dominate activity when you don’t need to concentrate on anything in particular

• Frontal lobe: section of cerebral cortex that extends from the central sulcus to the anterior limit of the brain

• Human Connectome Project: an effort to map all the long-distance connections

• Klüver-Bucy syndrome: a behavioral disorder caused by temporal lobe damage

• Laminae: layer of cell bodies that are parallel to the surface of the cerebral cortex and separated from each other by layers of fibers

• Occipital lobe: posterior section of the cerebral cortex

• Parietal lobe: section of the cerebral cortex between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus

• Postcentral gyrus: area just posterior to the central gyrus; primary receptor site for touch and other body sensations

• Precentral gyrus: the posterior portion of the frontal lobe of the cortex, specialized for control of movement

• Prefrontal cortex: anterior portion of the frontal lobe, which responds mostly to the sensory stimuli that signal the need for a movement

• Prefrontal lobotomy: surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain

• Primates: order of mammals that includes monkeys, apes, and humans

• Temporal lobe: the lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the temples

• Temporoparietal junction: area where the parietal lobe and the temporal lobe meet

• Ablation: removal of a brain area, generally with a surgical knife

• Computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan): method of visualizing a living brain by injecting a dye into the blood and placing a person’s head into a CT scanner

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): a device that records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp

• Evoked potentials: electrical recordings on the scalp from brain activity in response to a stimulus

• Evoked responses: electrical recordings on the scalp from brain activity in response to a stimulus

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): a modified version of MRI that measures energies based on hemoglobin instead of water; determines the brain areas receiving the greatest supply of blood and using the most oxygen

• Lesion: damage to a structure

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): method of imaging a living brain by using a magnetic field and a radio frequency field to make atoms with odd atomic weights all rotate in the same direction and then removing those fields and measuring the energy that the atoms release

• Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): a device that measures the faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity

• Optogenetics: method of implanting a receptor into a neuron and stimulating it with light, to investigate the functions of a particular type of neuron

• Phrenology: a process of relating skull anatomy to behavior

• Positron-emission tomography (PET): method of mapping activity in a living brain by recording the emission of radioactivity from injected chemicals

• Stereotaxic instrument: a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain

• Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): the application of an intense magnetic field to a portion of the scalp, temporarily inactivating neurons below the magnet

Chapter 4

1. Distinguish between genetic and epigenetic influences on development.

2. Describe the types of evidence researchers use to infer heritability.

3. Explain why heritability varies from one population to another.

4. Explain why high heritability does not mean that the environment cannot change something.

5. Describe ways in which genetic variations can influence behavior.

6. Give examples of evolutionary explanations in psychology.

7. Discuss the problems in explaining a possible evolutionary basis for altruistic behavior.

8. Describe the early development of the brain.

9. Discuss the formation of new neurons in a mature brain.

10. Describe the evidence showing that axons seek specific targets.

11. Define apoptosis, and explain how neurotrophins prevent it.

12. Cite examples of how experiences alter brain anatomy and function.

    • environmental enrichment prods thicker cortexes, greater dendritic branching, & improved performance on learning in rats

      • specific learned skills thicken different cortical areas

13. Evaluate explanations of risky behavior in adolescents.

14. List possible mechanisms of recovery after brain damage.

    • stroke causes?

      • cerebrovascular accident — result of interrupted blood flow to the brain resulting fr either a blood clot or ruptured artery

      • more common stroke: ischema; stroke resulting from a blood clot

        • edema (accumulation of fluid) of CSF

      • hemmorhage is a stroke caused by a ruptured artery

        • edema of blood & chems

    • cannabinoids minimize damg caused by strokes, works best if taken shortly before the stroke

15. Explain how remodeling in the cerebral cortex produces the phantom limb experience.

Key Terms:

• altruistic behavior: action that benefits someone other than the actor

• apoptosis: a programmed mechanism of cell death in which the neuron kills itself

• artificial selection: choosing individuals with a desired trait and make them the parents of the next generation

• autosomal genes: genes located on autosomal chromosomes

• cerebrovascular accident: temporary interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area during a stroke

• chromosomes: strands of genes

• closed head injury: a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain

  • most common head injury in adolescents and young adults

• collateral sprouts: new branches that take over vacant synapses when a cell loses input from an axon

• deafferent: loss of sensory or afferent input

• denervation supersensitivity: After learning strengthens one set of synapses, other synapses weaken, while if a certain set of synapses becomes inactive, the remaining synapses become more responsive, more easily stimulated

• deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a double-stranded chemical

• diaschisis: the decreased activity of surviving neurons because of damage to other neurons

• differentiates: happens when a cell begins to form its dendrites, axon, and synapses

• dizygotic twins: from two eggs

• dominant gene: exerts a strong effect in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition

• edema: accumulation of fluid

• epigenetics: field that deals with changes in gene expression

• evolution: a change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population

• evolutionary psychology: the study of how behaviors evolved

• far transfer: teaching something challenging in the hope that students will get smarter in other ways, too

• fetal alcohol syndrome: a condition marked by hyperactivity, impulsiveness, attention deficits, motor problems, heart defects, facial abnormalities, and sometimes thinning of the cerebral cortex

  • fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

    • kids: hyperactivity, impulsiveness, attention deficits, heart defects, facial abnormalities, & sometimes the thinning of the cerebral cortex

    • alcohol kills neurons via apoptosis; it inhibits glutamate receptors (main excitatory transmitter), enhances GABA receptors (main inhibitory transmitter); not enough excitation = apoptosis.

• fitness: the number of copies of one’s genes that endure in later generations

• focal hand dystonia: a condition in which one or more fingers may go into constant contraction and moving one finger without moving another becomes more difficult

• genes: units of heredity that maintain their identity from one generation to the next

• group selection: the idea that altruistic groups thrive better than less cooperative ones

• hemorrhage: a type of stroke the resulting from a ruptured artery

• heritability: characteristic in which the variations depend largely on genetic differences

• heterozygous: having an unmatched pair of genes on the two chromosomes

• histones: proteins that bind DNA into a shape that is like string wound around balls

• homozygous: having an identical pair of genes on the two chromosomes

• ischemia: a type of stroke that results from a blood clot or other obstruction in an artery

  • most common type of stroke

• kin selection: selection for a gene that benefits the individual’s relatives

• Lamarckian evolution: evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics

• migrate: move

• monozygotic twins: from one egg

• mutation: a heritable change in a DNA molecule

• myelination: the process by which glia produce the insulating fatty sheaths that accelerate transmission in many vertebrate axons

• nerve growth factor (NGF): a protein that promotes the survival and growth of the axon

• neural Darwinism: the principle that we start with more neurons and synapses than we can keep, and then a selection process keeps the most successful combinations of synapses and rejects others

• neurotrophin: a protein that promotes the survival and growth of the axon

• phantom limb: a continuing sensation of an amputated body part

• phenylketonuria (PKU): a genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine

• proliferation: the production of new cells

• recessive gene: exerts its effects only in the homozygous condition

• reciprocal altruism: the idea that individuals help those who will probably return the favor

• ribonucleic acid (RNA): a single-stranded chemical

• sex-limited genes: present in both sexes but active mainly in one sex

• sex-linked genes: the genes on the sex chromosomes (designated X and Y in mammals)

• stem cells: cells that do not migrate

• stroke: temporary interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area

• synaptogenesis: the formation of synapses

• tissue plasminogen activator (tPA): a drug that breaks up blood clots

Chapter 5

1. Remember that we see because light strikes the retina, sending a message to the brain.

2. Describe the connections from the eyes to the brain and explain how they produce the blind spot of the eye.

   • visual neural pathway (order of stimuli communication)?

     • Rods & cones in the retina → horizontal cells & bipolar cells → amacrine cells & ganglion

3. List the properties of cones and rods.

4. Explain the main features of color vision.

5. Trace the route of visual information from the retina to the cerebral cortex.

6. Explain lateral inhibition in terms of the connections among neurons in the retina.

7. Define and give examples of receptive fields.

8. Describe research on how experiences alter development of the visual cortex.

9. Distinguish between the ventral and dorsal streams of the visual system.

10. Describe the brain mechanisms for perceiving shapes, faces, and movement

Key Terms:

• bipolar cells: type of neuron in the retina that receives input directly from the receptors

• blind spot: area at the back of the retina where the optic nerve exits; it is devoid of receptors

• color constancy: the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting

• color vision deficiency: inability to perceive color differences

• cones: type of retinal receptor that contributes to color perception

• fovea: a tiny area of the retina specialized for acute, detailed vision

• ganglion cells: type of neuron in the retina that receives input from the bipolar cells

• law of specific nerve energies: statement that whatever excites a particular nerve always sends the same kind of information to the brain

• midget ganglion cells: ganglion cells in the fovea of humans and other primates

• negative color afterimage: result of staring at a colored object for a prolonged length of time and then looking at a white surface

• opponent-process theory: idea that we perceive color in terms of opposites

• optic nerve: ganglion cell axons that exit through the back of the eye and continue to the brain

• photopigments: chemicals contained in rods and cones that release energy when struck by light

• pupil: an opening in the center of the iris where light enters

• retina: the rear surface of the eye, which is lined with visual receptors

• retinex theory: concept that the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color for each area

• aphantasia: a tendency to be attracted toward math and science

• astigmatism: a decreased responsiveness to one kind of line or another, caused by an asymmetric curvature of the eyes

• blindsight: the ability to respond in limited ways to visual information without perceiving it consciously

• complex cells: respond most strongly to a stimulus moving in a particular direction

• end-stopped (or hypercomplex) cells: visual cortex cells that respond to a bar-shaped pattern of light in a particular orientation, but only if it does not extend beyond a certain point

• feature detectors: neurons whose responses indicate the presence of a particular feature

• horizontal cells: type of cell that receives input from receptors and delivers inhibitory input to bipolar cells

• hyperphantasia: the ability to imagine a visual scene almost as vividly as actually seeing it

• koniocellular neurons: small ganglion cells that occur throughout the retina

• lateral geniculate nucleus: thalamic nucleus that receives incoming visual information

• lateral inhibition: the reduction of activity in one neurons by activity in neighboring neurons

• magnocellular neurons: large cell bodies with large receptive fields that are distributed evenly throughout the retina

• parvocellular neurons: small cell bodies with small receptive fields in or near the fovea

• primary visual cortex: (area V1) area of the cortex responsible for the first stage of visual processing

• receptive field: the area in visual space that excites or inhibits any neuron

• retinal disparity: the discrepancy between what the left and right eyes see

• sensitive period: time early in development when experiences have a particularly strong and enduring influence

• simple cell: type of visual cortex cell that has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones

• strabismus: (or strabismic amblyopia or lazy eye) a condition in which the eyes do not point in the same direction

• V1: area of the cortex responsible for the first stage of visual processing

• dorsal stream: visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system locate objects; the “where” path

• fusiform gyrus: brain area of the inferior temporal cortex that recognizes faces

• inferior temporal cortex: portion of the cortex where neurons are highly sensitive to complex aspects of the shape of visual stimuli within very large receptive fields

• motion blindness: an impaired ability to perceive movement

• MST: (medial superior temporal cortex) temporal cortex area that responds best to the expansion, contraction, or rotation of a visual display

• MT: (or V5) area of the middle temporal lobe that is important for perception of visual motion

• prosopagnosia: the inability to recognize faces due to damage of several brain areas

• saccade: voluntary eye movements

• secondary visual cortex: (area V2) area of the brain that processes information from the primary visual cortex and transmits it to additional areas

• ventral stream: visual paths in the temporal cortex that are specialized for identifying and recognizing objects; the “what” path

• visual agnosia: an inability to recognize objects despite otherwise satisfactory vision

Chapter 6

1. Describe the receptors for hearing.

2. Explain the mechanisms of pitch perception and sound localization.

3. Describe the functions of the primary auditory cortex.

4. Discuss causes of hearing loss.

5. Describe the mechanisms of vestibular sensation and somatosensation

   • primary somatosensory cortex damage causes?

     • inability to process touch sensations

6. Compare physical and emotional pain.

   • neurotransmitters and pain?

     • mild pain prod glutamate; stronger pain releases both glutamate & neuropeptides (substance P & calcitonin gene-related peptide [CGRP])

7. Describe methods of relieving pain.

8. Describe the mechanisms of taste and smell.

   • taste buds, location & concentration?

     • taste receptors are inside taste buds, taste buds are in papillae on the surface of the tongue

     • ea taste bud has approx 50 receptor cells

     • taste buds are mainly along the edge of the tongue

     • diff chems activate diff receptors, wch prod diff action potentials

   • kinds of olfactory receptors?

     • hundreds

9. Discuss individual differences in taste and olfaction.

10. Define and describe synesthesia.

Key Terms

• amplitude: the intensity of a sound wave

• amusia: commonly called “tone deafness”

• cochlea: structure in the inner ear containing auditory receptors

• conductive deafness (middle-ear deafness): hearing loss that occurs if the bones of the middle ear fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea

• frequency: the number of cycles per second, measured in Hz

• frequency theory: concept that the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency

• hair cells: the auditory receptors that lie along the basilar membrane in the cochlea

• nerve deafness (inner-ear deafness): hearing loss that results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve

• oval window: a membrane of the inner ear

• pinna: the outer ear structure of flesh and cartilage that sticks out from each side of the head

• pitch: the aspect of auditory perception related to the frequency of a sound

• place theory: concept that pitch perception depends on which part of the inner ear has cells with the greatest activity level

• primary auditory cortex (area A1): area in the superior temporal cortex in which cells respond best to tones of a particular frequency

• timbre: tone quality or complexity, dependent on the harmonics of the tone

• tinnitus: frequent or constant ringing in the ears

  • tinnitus?

    • tinnitus — frequent/constant ringing in the ears

    • resembles a phantom limb, losing pt of cochlea = amputation; axons invade the area due to lack of input

• tympanic membrane: the eardrum

• capsaicin: a chemical, found in hot peppers, that produces a painful burning sensation

• dermatome: area of the body connected to a particular spinal nerve

• endorphins: transmitters that attach to the same receptors as morphine

  • endorphins, similar to?

    • a neuropeptide

    • bind to the same receptors as opiates

    • endogenous morphines

• gate theory: idea that stimulation of certain axons can close the “gates” for pain messages

• neuropathic pain: a condition of chronic pain that lasts long after the original cause of pain has ended

• nocebo: the opposite of placebo

• numbsense: phenomenon that occurs for touch the is similar to blindsight

• opioid mechanisms: systems that respond to opiate drugs and similar chemicals

• Pacinian corpuscle: receptor that responds to a sudden displacement of the skin or high- frequency vibrations on the skin

• periaqueductal gray area: area of the brainstem that is rich in endorphin synapses

• placebo: a drug or other procedure with no pharmacological effects

• S1: the primary sensory cortex

• semicircular canals: structures located in the vestibular organ, oriented in three planes and lined with hair cells; sensitive to the directional tilt of the head

• somatosensory system: sensory network that monitors the surface of the body and its movements

• adaptation: decreased response to a stimulus as a result of recent exposure to it

• cross-adaptation: reduced response to one taste after exposure to another

• olfaction: the sense of smell, which is the response to chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose

• olfactory cells: neurons responsible for smell, located on the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal air passages

• papillae: structures on a tongue’s surface that contain taste buds

• supertasters: people with a higher than average number of taste buds

• synesthesia: the experience some people have in which stimulation of one sense evokes a perception of that sense and another one also

• taste buds: receptors on the tongue that detect certain chemicals

Chapter 7

1. Distinguish between the functions of fast and slow muscles.

2. Describe the functions of proprioceptors.

3. Discuss the concept of a motor program.

4. Contrast the roles of several cortical areas in the control of movement.

5. Discuss the role of the prefrontal cortex in inhibiting movements.

   • damg to the prefrontal cortex leads to disorganized or poorly timed movements

6. Evaluate the concept of mirror neurons.

7. Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.

8. Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

   • the cerebellum is involved with rhythms or movement; damg to it causes difficulties in clapping and oth repetative movements

9. Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in planning a movement.

10. Discuss the causes and treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

11. Describe the genetics of Huntington’s disease

Key Terms:

• aerobic: requiring the use of oxygen during movements

• anaerobic: proceeding without using oxygen at the time of a reaction

• antagonistic muscles: opposing sets of muscles that are required to move a leg or arm back and forth

• ballistic movement: motion that proceeds as a single organized unit that cannot be redirected once it begins

• cardiac muscles: muscles of the heart that have properties intermediate between those of smooth and skeletal muscles

• central pattern generators: neural mechanisms in the spinal cord that generate rhythmic patterns of motor output

• extensor: muscle that straightens the limb

• fast-twitch fibers: muscle fibers that produce fast contractions but fatigue rapidly

• flexor: muscle that flexes the limb

• Golgi tendon organs: receptors that respond to increases in muscle tension; inhibit further contractions

• motor program: a fixed sequence of movements

• muscle spindle: a receptor parallel to the muscle that responds to a stretch

• neuromuscular junction: a synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber

• proprioceptor: a receptor that detects the position or movement of a part of the body

• reflexes: automatic muscular responses to stimuli

• skeletal (striated) muscles: muscles that control movement of the body in relation to the environment

• slow-twitch fibers: muscle fibers that have less vigorous contractions and no fatigue

• smooth muscles: those that control the digestive system and other organs

• stretch reflex: a reflexive contraction of a muscle in response to a stretch of that muscle

• antisaccade task: a voluntary eye movement away from the normal direction

• basal ganglia: a group of subcortical forebrain structures lateral to the thalamus

• cerebellar nuclei: sends output back to the cerebral cortex as well as to downstream targets

• corticospinal tracts: paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

• lateral corticospinal tract: a set of axons from the primary motor cortex, surrounding areas, and midbrain area that is primarily responsible for controlling the peripheral muscles

• medial corticospinal tract: set of axons from many parts of the cerebral cortex, midbrain, and medulla; responsible for control of bilateral muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk

• mirror neurons: cells that are active during a movement and while watching someone else perform the same movement

• parallel fibers: axons in the cerebellum, parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of Purkinje cells

• posterior parietal cortex: area with a mixture of visual, somatosensory, and movement functions, particularly in monitoring the position of the body relative to objects in the world

• prefrontal cortex: anterior portion of the frontal lobe, which responds mostly to the sensory stimuli that signal the need for a movement

• premotor cortex: area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement

• primary motor cortex: area of the prefrontal cortex just anterior to the central sulcus; a primary point of origin for axons conveying messages to the spinal cord

• Purkinje cells: flat cells in sequential planes, in the cerebellar cortex, parallel to one another

• readiness potential: recordable activity in the motor cortex prior to voluntary movement

• red nucleus: a midbrain area that controls certain aspects of movement

• striatum or dorsal striatum: consists of the caudate nucleus and putamen supplementary motor cortex: area of the frontal cortex; active during preparation of a rapid sequence of movements

• huntingtin: protein produced by the gene whose mutation leads to Huntington’s disease

• Huntington’s disease: neurological disorder characterized by jerky arm movements and facial twitches and later by tremors, writhing movements, and psychological symptoms

• L-dopa: a precursor to dopamine that does cross the blood–brain barrier

• MPP+: a chemical that accumulates in, and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine

• MPTP: a chemical that the body converts to MPP+

• Parkinson’s disease: malady caused by damage to a dopamine pathway, resulting in slow movements, difficulty initiating movements, rigidity of the muscles, and tremors

• stem cells: undifferentiated cells that divide and produce daughter cells that develop more specialized properties

Chapter 8

1. Define and describe endogenous rhythms.

2. Explain the mechanisms that set and reset the biological clock.

   • zeitgeber?

     • zeitgeber — stimulus th resets the circadian rhythm

       • social ones don’t work

       • best one for humans: light

3. Describe the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in controlling sleep and wakefulness.

4. Briefly outline the biochemical basis of the circadian rhythm

5. List and characterize the stages of sleep.

6. List the main characteristics of REM sleep.

7. Describe the brain mechanisms of sleep and REM.

8. Discuss the consequences of the fact that sleep is controlled locally.

9. Discuss disorders of sleep.

10. Evaluate possible explanations of the functions of sleep.

11. Describe species differences in sleep.

12. Evaluate possible explanations of the functions of REM.

13. Describe possible explanations of dreaming.

Key Terms

• endogenous circadian rhythms: self-generated rhythm that lasts about a day

  • “endogenous” produced fr within

  • sleep is under the control of circadian rhythms

  • the human circadian rhythm is just over 24 hours

  • temperature lowest in the middle of the night

• endogenous circannual rhythm: self-generated rhythm that lasts about a year

• jet lag: a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

  • traveling west is easier

• melatonin: hormone that influences both circadian and circannual rhythms

  • take melatonin a few hours b4 bed

• pineal gland: an endocrine gland located just posterior to the thalamus that releases the hormone melatonin

• suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): part of the hypothalamus; provides the main control of the circadian rhythms

• zeitgeber: stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm

  • important one for humans:light

• alpha waves: a steady series of brain waves at a frequency of 8 to 12 per second that are characteristic of relaxation

• basal forebrain: area anterior and dorsal to the hypothalamus; includes cell clusters that promote wakefulness and sleep,

• brain death: condition with no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimulus

• coma: an extended period of unconsciousness with a low level of brain activity

• insomnia: inadequate sleep

  • charateristic: consistent sleepiness thruout the day

• K-complex: a sharp brain wave associated with temporary inhibition of neuronal firing

• locus coeruleus: a small structure in the pons that emits bursts of impulses in response to meaningful events, especially those that produce emotional arousal

• minimally conscious state: condition of decreased brain activity with occasional, brief periods of purposeful actions and limited speech comprehension

• narcolepsy: a condition characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness during the day

  • cataplexy?

    • one symptom of narcolepsy

    • cataplexy — an attack of muscle weakness while the person remains awake.

• night terrors: experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror; more severe than a nightmare

• non-REM (NREM) sleep: stages of sleep other than REM

• orexin (or hypocretin): neurotransmitter that increases wakefulness and arousal

• paradoxical sleep: sleep that is deep in some ways and light in others

• periodic limb movement disorder: a sleep disorder characterized by repeated involuntary movement of the legs and sometimes the arms

• PGO waves: a distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical potentials that occur first in the pons, then in the lateral geniculate, and then in the occipital cortex

• polysomnograph: a combination of EEG and eye-movement records

• pontomesencephalon: part of the reticular formation that contributes to cortical arousal

• rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: sleep stage with rapid eye movements, high brain activity, and relaxation of the large muscles

  • stage 1 → stage2 →stage 3 → stage 4→stage 3

  • important for strngthg motor skills

• REM behavior disorder: a condition in which people move around vigorously during REM sleep

• reticular formation: a structure that extends from the medulla into the forebrain; controls motor areas of the spinal cord and selectively increases arousal and attention in various forebrain areas

• sleep apnea: impaired ability to breathe while sleeping

  • obese people are at high risk

• sleep spindle: 12 to 14 Hz brain waves in bursts that last at least half a second

• slow-wave sleep (SWS): sleep occupied by slow, large-amplitude brain waves

  • most likely to sleepwalk

• unresponsive wakefulness syndrome: (coma) an extended period of unconsciousness with a low level of brain activity

• activation-synthesis hypothesis: idea that a dream represents the brain’s effort to make sense of sparse and distorted information

• neurocognitive model: proposal that dreams represent thinking related to recent memories under conditions of reduced sensory input

• sleep & memory

Chapter 9

1. List examples of how temperature regulation contributes to behaviors.

2. Define homeostasis and allostasis.

3. Explain why a constant high body temperature is worth all the energy it costs.

4. Describe the brain mechanisms of temperature control.

5. Discuss why a moderate fever is advantageous in fighting an infection.

6. Distinguish between osmotic and hypovolemic thirst, including the brain mechanisms for each.

   • hypovolemic thirst?

     • hypovolemic thirst — thirst caused by low blood volume; need to restore lost salts in addition to water

       • cells th detect low blood pressure stim posterior pituitary gland to release vasopressin & renin (enzyme), whc leads to the production of angiotensis II (whc constricts blood vessels to compensate for the low blood pressure.

         • vasopressin and blood pressure (constriction or dilation?)

           • vasopressin — (antidiuretic hormone) hormone released by the posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure & enables the kidneys to conserve water

           • raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels, compensates for decreased blood volume

       • cant drink pure water bc it’ll dilute body fluids, lower the solute concentration in the blood even further

7. Discuss sodium-specific hunger.

8. Explain the genetic influences on consumption of dairy products.

9. Discuss influences on food selection.

10. Describe the physiological factors that influence short-term and long-term hunger and satiety.

11. Describe the brain mechanisms of feeding.

12. Discuss common eating disorders.

Key Terms

• allostasis: the adaptive way in which the body changes its set points depending on the situation

• basal metabolism: energy used to maintain a constant body temperature while at rest

• ectothermic: controlling temperature by relying on external sources of heat or cooling

• endothermic: controlling temperature by the body’s physiological mechanisms

• homeostasis: tendency to maintain a variable, such as temperature, within a fixed range

• negative feedback: homeostatic processes that reduce discrepancies from the set point

• preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus POA/AH: brain area important for temperature regulation, thirst, and sexual behavior

• set point: a value that the body works to maintain

• aldosterone: adrenal hormone that causes the body to retain salt

• angiotensin II: hormone that constricts the blood vessels, compensating for the drop in blood pressure; triggers thirst

• antidiuretic hormone (ADH): hormone that enables the kidneys to reabsorb water from urine; also known as vasopressin

• hypovolemic thirst: thirst provoked by low blood volume

  • hypovolemic thirst?

    • hypovolemic thirst — thirst caused by low blood volume; need to restore lost salts in addition to water

      • cells th detect low blood pressure stim posterior pituitary gland to release vasopressin & renin (enzyme), whc leads to the production of angiotensis II (whc constricts blood vessels to compensate for the low blood pressure.

        • vasopressin and blood pressure (constriction or dilation?)

          • vasopressin — (antidiuretic hormone) hormone released by the posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure & enables the kidneys to conserve water

          • raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels, compensates for decreased blood volume

      • cant drink pure water bc it’ll dilute body fluids, lower the solute concentration in the blood even further

• lateral preoptic area: part of the hypothalamus that controls drinking

• osmotic pressure: tendency of water to flow across a semipermeable membrane from the area of low solute concentration to the area of high solute concentration

• osmotic thirst: thirst triggered by certain neurons that detect the loss of their own water

• OVLT (organum vasculosum laminae terminalis): a condition characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness during the day

• paraventricular nucleus (PVN): brain area that detects osmotic pressure and salt content of the blood

• sodium-specific hunger: increased preference for salty tastes

• subfornical organ (SFO): brain structure adjoining the third ventricle of the brain, where its cells monitor osmotic pressure and sodium concentration

• supraoptic nucleus: part of the hypothalamus that controls the release rate of vasopressin

• vasopressin: (antidiuretic hormone) hormone released by posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure and enables kidneys to conserve water

• anorexia nervosa: disorder characterized by refusal to eat enough to remain healthy

• arcuate nucleus: hypothalamic area with sets of neurons for hunger and satiety

• bulimia nervosa: a condition in which people alternate between binges of overeating and periods of strict dieting

• cholecystokinin (CCK): hormone released from the duodenum that constricts the sphincter muscle between the stomach and duodenum, limiting the meal size

• duodenum: part of the small intestine adjoining the stomach; first digestive site that absorbs nutrients

• ghrelin: chemical released by the stomach during a period of food deprivation; also released as a neurotransmitter in the brain, where it stimulates eating

• glucagon: pancreatic hormone that stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose

• insulin: pancreatic hormone that enables glucose to enter the cells

• lactase: intestinal enzyme that metabolizes lactose

• lactose: sugar in milk

• lateral hypothalamus: area of the hypothalamus that controls insulin secretion, alters taste responsiveness, and facilitates feeding in other ways

• leptin: hormone released by fat cells in proportion to their volume

• melanocortins: type of chemical that promotes satiety

• sham-feeding: procedure in which everything that an animal swallows leaks out a tube connected to the esophagus or stomach

• Type 1 diabetes: sometimes called juvenile diabetes because it usually begins early in life

• Type 2 diabetes: begins in middle age or later and is the more common type

• vagus nerve: tenth cranial nerve, which has branches to and from stomach and several other organs

• ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): region of the hypothalamus in which damage leads to faster stomach emptying and increase secretion of insulin

Chapter 10

1. Evaluate possible evolutionary explanations of men’s and women’s sexual behaviors.

2. Describe the role of the SRY gene in mammalian sexual development.

3. Explain the role of testosterone in the development of genital anatomy.

   • hormones on external genitals vs reproductive organs?

     • testosterone directs the differentiation of external genitalia, where high levels produce male pattern & low levels produce female pattern. Doesn’t effect internal anatomy.

4. Distinguish between organizing and activating effects of hormones.

   • hormones and male sexual activity?

     • androgens are essential for male sexual activity, particularly testosterone & have a positive correlation with male sexual arousal

     • decrease in testosterone decreases male sexual activity

       • controlling sex offenders with hormones?

         • anti-androgen drugs can aid sex offenders reduce sexual impulses

   • common and effective birth control has what hormones?

     • combination pill contains both estrogen and progesterone

5. Explain why the degree of masculinization or feminization of brain anatomy varies among brain areas for a given individual.

6. Describe how hormones and experiences influence parental behavior.

   • hormones and parental behavior?

     • vasopressin is important for social behavior; male prairie voles w/ high levels have great sexual fidelity to their mates

       • human males defective vasopressin receptors, less marriage, marital conflicts & threat of divorce

       • Human females defective: less attentive to their kids

7. Explain the relevance of intersex people for understanding the role of hormones in the development of sex-typed behaviors.

   • CAH girls in adolescence, magazines?

     • tend to read more sports magazines and fewer style & glamour ones compared to oth girls.

   • “True hermaphrodites”?

     • (13th ed.) have some ovarian tissue and some testicular tissue

8. Discuss possible biological influences on the development of sexual orientation.

   • homosexuality genetics?

     • MZ twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation

     • there are a few sites where a form of a gene is somewhat common in homo men, but no common gene has more th a small effect

     • male homosexuality and the effects of hormones?

       • homo men and hetero men have same hormone levels; homo and hetero women have same hormone levels

       • mother’s immune system in utero; greater # of bio bros, youngest is most likely to be homo

Key Terms

• activating effects: temporary effect of a hormone, which occurs at any time in life while the hormone is present

• androgens: testes-produced hormones that are more abundant in males

• estradiol: a hormone in the estrogen family

• estrogens: family of hormones that are more abundant in females

• follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): chemical released from the anterior pituitary; promotes the growth of a follicle in the ovary

• impotence: the inability to have an erection

• Klinefelter syndrome: characterized by an XXY pattern, or less commonly XXYY or XXXY

• luteinizing hormone: hormone released from the anterior pituitary that causes the follicle to release an ovum

• menstrual cycle: a periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of about 28 days

• Müllerian ducts: embryonic structures that can develop into a female’s oviducts, uterus, and upper vagina

• organizing effects: long-lasting effects of a hormone that are present during a sensitive period early in development

• ovaries: the female’s egg-producing organs

• oxytocin: hormone released by posterior pituitary; important for sexual and parental behaviors

• preovulatory period: the days of the menstrual cycle when estradiol levels are highest

• progesterone: steroid hormone that prepares the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of pregnancy

• sensitive period: time early in development when experiences have a particularly strong and enduring influence

• sexual selection: tendency for a gene to spread in the population if it makes individuals more appealing to the opposite sex

• SRY gene: the sex-determining region on the Y chromosome

• steroid hormones: hormones that contain four carbon rings

• supraoptic nucleus: part of the hypothalamus that controls the release rate of vasopressin

• testes: sperm-producing organs

• testosterone: an androgen chemical

• Turner syndrome: characterized by an XO pattern – an X chromosome and no second sex chromosome, or just part of a second X chromosome, or one X in some cells and two Xs in others

• Wolffian ducts: precursors to male internal structures

• androgen insensitivity: condition in which individuals with an XY chromosome pattern have the genital appearance of a female

• congenital adrenal hyperplasia: the overdevelopment of the adrenal glands from birth

• gender identity: the gender that a person considers himself or herself to be

• intersex person: a person whose sexual development is intermediate or ambiguous

• testicular feminization: condition in which individuals with an XY chromosome pattern have the genital appearance of a female

• transgender: people are those who affirm that they were “born in the wrong body,” that although their anatomy appears male or female, they clearly identify with the other gender

Chapter 11

1. Discuss the role of the autonomic nervous system in emotional feelings.

2. Explain why many psychologists describe emotion in terms of continuous dimensions.

3. Discuss the role of emotions in moral reasoning.

4. Describe what is known about the genetics of aggression.

5. Evaluate the roles of testosterone, serotonin, and cortisol in aggressive behavior.

   • depression & aggression, serotonin?

     • social isolation lowers serotonin turnover (release & resynthesis)

     • low serotonin turnover correlates (weakly) with human aggressive behavior

       • including in those convicted of arson, violent crimes, & violent suicide attempts

       • depression also seems to be higher with those with low serotonin turnover

6. Discuss the role of the amygdala in emotional processing.

   • key area in learned fears?

     • amygdala = important for modding the startle reflex & learned fears

7. Describe biological aspects of anxiety disorders.

8. Comment on methods of relieving anxiety.

   • anxiety meds?

     • anti-anxiety drugs = anxiolytic drugs

     • most common anxiety medication: benzodiazepines; binds to GABAA Receptor (includes GABA reception & sites that mod its own sensitivity)

       • when benzo’s bind, they bend the receptor so GABA can be easily received

       • directs inhibition in amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and more

9. Define the general adaptation syndrome.

10. Describe the effects of stress on the nervous system and the immune system.

11. Discuss coping with stress

Key Terms

• behavioral activation system (BAS): left brain hemispheric activity marked by low to moderate autonomic arousal and a tendency to approach, which could characterize either happiness or anger

• behavioral inhibition system (BIS): right brain hemispheric activity, which increases attention and arousal, inhibits action, and stimulates emotions such as fear and disgust

• facial-feedback hypothesis: a notion that the position of facial features influences emotions

• limbic system: interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem

• pure autonomic failure: condition when output from the autonomic nervous system to the body fails

• amygdala: temporal lobe structure important for evaluating emotional information

  • key area in learned fears?

    • amygdala = important for modding the startle reflex & learned fears

• bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: a set of neurons that connect to the amygdala

• benzodiazepines: a class of anti-anxiety drugs

  • binds to GABAA Receptor (includes GABA reception & sites that mod its own sensitivity)

    • when benzo’s bind, they bend the receptor so GABA can be easily received

    • directs inhibition in amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and more

• dual-hormone hypothesis: aggressive behavior relates to facilitation by testosterone and inhibition by the hormone cortisol

• GABAA receptor: receptor complex structure that includes a site that binds GABA as well as sites that modify the sensitivity of the GABA site

• 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA): serotonin’s main metabolite

• monoamine oxidase A (MAOA): a deficiency MAOA increases the build-up of serotonin inside neurons

• panic disorder: condition marked by frequent periods of anxiety and rapid breathing, increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling

• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a condition resulting from a severe traumatic experience, leading to a long-lasting state of frequent distressing recollections (flashbacks) and nightmares about the traumatic event, avoidance of reminders of it, and exaggerated arousal in response to noises and other stimuli

  • have the highest amount of tension, thus has the greatest startle reflex

• startle reflex: response that one makes after a sudden, unexpected loud noise or similar sudden stimulus

• turnover: release and resynthesis of a neurotransmitter

  • social isolation lowers serotonin turnover (release & resynthesis)

  • low serotonin turnover correlates (weakly) with human aggressive behavior

    • including in those convicted of arson, violent crimes, & violent suicide attempts

    • depression also seems to be higher with those with low serotonin turnover

• adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): chemical released from the anterior pituitary gland, which enhances metabolic activity and elevates blood levels of sugar

• antibodies: Y-shaped proteins that attach to particular kinds of antigens

• antigens: surface proteins on a cell that identify the cell as your own

• behavioral medicine: field that includes the effects of diet, smoking, exercise, stressful experiences, and other behaviors on health

• cortisol: hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that elevates blood sugar and enhances metabolism

• cytokine: small proteins that combat infections and communicate with the brain to elicit appropriate behaviors

• enteric nervous system: a set of neurons that control digestion, stretching from the esophagus to the rectum

• general adaptation syndrome: a generalized response to stress

• HPA axis: the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex

• immune system: structures that protect the body against viruses, bacteria, and other intruders

• leukocyte: white blood cells

• prostaglandins: chemicals the immune system delivers to the hypothalamus, causing a fever

• psychoneuroimmunology: study of the ways in which experiences, especially stressful ones, alter the immune system and how the immune system influences the central nervous system

• resilience: ability to recover well from atraumatic experience

• stress: the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it; also defined as events that are interpreted as threatening

Chapter 12

1. Explain why Lashley’s search for the engram of memory failed and why a later attempt succeeded.

   • not all memories are physiologically identical

2. Distinguish among types of memory.

3. Describe the current view of consolidation of memory.

4. Discuss the biological basis of Alzheimer’s disease.

   • tangles and plaques in the hippocampus &cerebral cortex causes the brain damg

5. Evaluate explanations for infant amnesia.

6. Describe the effects of hippocampal damage on memory.

   • H.M. had his hippocampus removed and suffered serious memory problems

7. Discuss and evaluate current views of the function of the hippocampus in memory.

8. Describe how the hippocampus and surrounding areas relate to navigation.

   • taxi driver’s had more acitivity in the hippocampus when answering spatial questions

9. Contrast the role of the hippocampus to those of the striatum and other areas.

10. Define Hebbian synapses.

11. Explain what we learned about memory from studies of Aplysia.

12. Explain the mechanism of long-term potentiation.

13. Evaluate attempted methods of improving memory.

Key Terms:

• Alzheimer’s disease: condition characterized by memory loss, confusion, depression, restlessness, hallucinations, delusions, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite

• amnesia: memory loss

  • studies on amnesia help understanding memory

• β-amyloid: a protein that accumulates to higher than normal levels in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease

  • amyloid & tau are partially the ccause of Alz

• APOE: a gene that makes a protein that contributes to many functions, including lipid metabolism and control of the blood-brain barrier

• classical conditioning: type of conditioning produced by the pairing of two stimuli, one of which evokes an automatic response

• conditioned response (CR): response evoked by a conditioned stimulus after it has been paired with an unconditioned response

• conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that evokes a particular response only after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

  • presented first, before the unconditioned stimulus

• consolidate: to strengthen a memory and make it more long-lasting

• delayed response task: assignment in which an animal must respond on the basis of a signal that it remembers but that is no longer present

• engram: physical representation of what has been learned

• equipotentiality: a concept that all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors; any part of the cortex can substitute for any other

• infant amnesia: tendency to forget the experiences of early childhood

• instrumental conditioning: a type of condition in which reinforcement or punishment changes the future probabilities of a given behavior

• lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP): a nucleus of the cerebellum that is essential for certain conditioned responses

• long-term memory: memory of events that occurred further back in time

• mass action: concept that the cortex works as a whole and the more cortex, the better

• punishment: an event that suppresses the frequency of the preceding response

• reinforcer: any event that increases the future probability of the preceding response

• short-term memory: memory of events that have just occurred

• tau protein: part of the intracellular support structure of axons

• unconditioned response (UCR): response automatically evoked by an unconditioned stimulus

• unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that automatically evokes an unconditioned response

• working memory: a storage of memory while one is working with it

• anterograde amnesia: an inability to form memories for events that happened after brain damage

• declarative memory: deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

• delayed matching-to-sample task: task in which an animal sees a sample object and then after a delay must choose an object that matches the sample

• delayed nonmatching-to-sample task: task in which an animal sees an object and then after a delay must choose an object that does not match the sample

• episodic memory: memories of single personal events

• explicit memory: deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory

• grid cells: entorhinal cortex cells that respond when an animal is in any of a number of places arranged in a hexagonal grid pattern

• implicit memory: an influence of experience on behavior, even if the influence is not recognized

• Morris water maze: a procedure used to test for spatial memory in nonhuman

• place cells: hippocampal neurons that respond most strongly when an animal is in a particular place and headed in a particular direction

• probabilistic learning: learning what will probably happen under certain circumstances

• procedural memory: the development of motor skills and habits; a special kind of implicit memory

• radial maze: an apparatus used to test spatial memory in nonhuman

• retrograde amnesia: a loss of memory for events that occurred before brain damage

• semantic dementia: a loss of semantic memory

• semantic memories: memories of factual information

• sharp-wave ripples: used to reactivate a memory by bouncing messages back and forth to the hippocampus and cerebral cortex

• striatum: forebrain structure composed of the caudate nucleus and putamen, which are important for certain aspects of movement

• time cells: hippocampal neurons that respond most strongly at a particular point within a sequence of times

• AMPA receptor: a glutamate receptor that can respond to α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)

• associativity: property that a weak input paired with a stronger input enhances its later response

• BDNF: a neurotrophin similar to nerve growth factor

• cooperativity: tendency for nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons to produce long-term potentiation much more effectively than stimulation by just one

• habituation: a decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and accompanied by no change in other stimuli

• Hebbian synapse: a synapse that increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

• long-term depression (LTD): a prolonged decrease in response at a synapse

• long-term potentiation (LTP): phenomenon that when one or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a rapid series of stimuli, some of the synapses become more responsive to new input of the same type for minutes, days, or weeks

• NMDA receptor: a glutamate receptor that can respond to the drug N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)

• retrograde transmitter: a transmitter released by a postsynaptic cell that travels back to the presynaptic cell to modify it

• sensitization: an increase in response to mild stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense stimuli

• specificity: property that highly active synapses become strengthened and less active synapses do not

• g: a single underlying factor of general intelligence

• Confabulation: Confusing a made-up answer as a memory of an actual experience

Chapter 13

1. Contrast the functions of the left and right hemispheres.

   • damg to the corpus callosum prevents the exchange of info btw the two hemispheres

   • Right hemisphere damg results in?

     • inability to understand humor and sarcasm

     • damg to posterior R hem. results in difficulty in spatial relationships and finding where you are.

   • emotional content of speech?

     • R hemisphere

   • language controlled where?

     • L hemisphere

2. Describe the visual and auditory connections to the hemispheres.

3. Describe the results of split-brain surgery.

   • split brain L vs R grabbing?

     • those with this can use both hands independently

     • hemisphere perception:

       • Left hand can point to what R Hem perceives, but won’t understand what it is

       • Right hand can point to what L Hem perceives & understand what it is

       • (13th ed.) cant point to what the R hem perceives in its L visual field with the R hand

     • split brain conflict decreases when?

       • less common over time, can cooperate sometimes

       • (13th ed.) hemispheres learn to use smaller connections to avoid conflicts

   • used as last resort for epileptic seizures, start with drugs

   • the origin of epileptic seizures is a focus

   • little to no effect on intellect

4. Describe the attempts to teach language to nonhumans.

   • nonhuman language?

     • gain info on how to teach language to those who have diff learning it

     • underscores the “ambiguity of our concept of language”

5. Explain why increased intelligence does not explain language evolution.

   • William’s syndrome?

     • William’s syndrome — condition in whc the person has relatively good language abilities in spite of impairments in oth regards

       • have difficulty with attention, numbers, visuomotor skills (copying a drawing), & spatial perception

       • have better language than expected, awkward grammar, like a second language.

6. Evaluate the concept of a sensitive period for language development.

   • Chomsky and Pinker: language acquisition device

   • deaf kids that don’t learn any language before school won’t ever have perfect language

7. Describe and contrast two categories of aphasia.

   • fluent vs nonfluent aphasia?

     • nonfluent aphasia/Broca’s aphasia impairs language production in all uses, including sign language & gestures; they speak nonfluent-ly

       • lesion in L frontal cortex (Broca’s area)

       • meaningful but sparse language; omit pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, helping verbs, quantifiers, & tense & # endings in english

       • understands most speech, except when dependent on the stuff they omit

     • fluent aphasia/Wernicke’s aphasia impairs language comprehension or recalling the names of objects; they speak fluently

       • near auditory cortex (Wernicke’s area), into the thalamus & basal ganglia

8. Discuss what is known about bilingualism.

9. Describe research on dyslexia.

   • dyslexia?

     • Dyslexia — spcfc impairment of reading in someone w/ adequate vision, adequate motivation, and adequate overall cognitive skills

     • common in English bc of all the irregular spellings of words

10. Explain why nearly all neuroscientists and philosophers favor some version of monism with regard to the mind–brain relationship, and discuss the identity position.

11. Describe the brain activities that differ between conscious and unconscious processing of a stimulus, and the research supporting these conclusions.

    • lose consciousness, order of brain area activation?

      • loss of consciousness: decreased activity as a whole, decreased dopamine input to pt of the cortex, & decreased connectivity btw the thalamus & cortex

      • recovery: increased connectivity btw subcortical and cortical areas, then increased activity in the cortex.

12. Discuss and evaluate proposed methods of determining whether an unresponsive person might be conscious.

13. Describe the brain mechanisms of attention.

    • spatial neglect, damg to what area?

      • spatial neglect — tendency to ignore the L side of the body/L side of objects

      • caused by damg to the right hemisphere

14. Describe research on the brain mechanisms of perceptual decisions.

15. Describe research on the brain mechanisms of value decisions.

16. List key findings about biological influences on social behavior.

Key Terms:

• anomia: a difficulty recalling the names of objects

• aphasia: language impairment

• Broca’s aphasia (nonfluent aphasia): a brain damage that causes impaired language

  • have issues with pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, number and tense endings

• Broca’s area: portion of the brain that is associated with language production

  • in the left frontal lobe

• corpus callosum: bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

• dyslexia: a specific impairment of reading in someone with adequate vision, adequate motivation, and adequate overall cognitive skill

  • Dyseidetic dyslexics have difficulty recognizing whole words

• fluent aphasia: condition characterized by poor language comprehension and impaired ability to remember the name of objects

• interpreter: tendency of the left hemisphere to invent an explanation for an action when the true cause was unconscious

• language acquisition device: a built-in mechanism for acquiring language

• lateralization: divisions of labor between the two brain hemispheres

• nonfluent aphasia: a brain damage that causes impaired production of language

• optic chiasm: area where axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain

• planum temporale: section of the temporal cortex that is larger in the left hemisphere

• productivity: ability of language to produce new signals to represent new ideas

• split-brain syndrome: people who have undergone surgery to the corpus callosum

• visual field: area of the world that an individual can see at any time

• visual word form area: a special area of the temporal cortex, adjacent to the area most responsible for facial recognition

• Wernicke’s aphasia (fluent aphasia): condition characterized by poor language comprehension and impaired ability to remember the name of objects

• Wernicke’s area: portion of the brain located near the auditory cortex, associated with language comprehension

• Williams syndrome: condition in which the person has relatively good language abilities in spite of impairments in other regards

  • language ability akin to that of a person learning a second language

• binocular rivalry: alternating conscious perceptions that occur when one views incompatible displays with the two eyes

• conscious: capable of reporting the presence of a stimulus

• dualism: belief that mind and body are different kinds of substance that exist independently

• flash suppression: procedure of blocking conscious perception of a stationary object by surrounding it with flashing objects

• hard problem: philosophical question as to why and how brain activity becomes conscious

• identity position: view that mental processes and certain kinds of brain processes are the same thing, described in different terms

• inattentional blindness: tendency to ignore most changes in a scene that occur slowly or during an eyeblink

• masking: use of one stimulus to block perception of another

• materialism: view that everything that exists is material or physical

• mentalism: view that only the mind really exists and that the physical world could not exist unless some mind were aware of it

• mind–body or mind–brain problem: question about the relationship between mental experience and brain activity

• monism: a belief that the universe consists of only one kind of substance

• phi phenomenon: tendency to see something as moving back and forth between positions when in fact it is alternately blinking on and off in those positions

• spatial neglect: a tendency to ignore the left side of the body or the left side of objects

• Stroop effect: the difficulty of saying the color of ink of a word instead of reading the word itself

• frontotemporal dementia: condition in which parts of the frontal
  and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex gradually degenerate

  • inhibited emotional responses and emotion recognition in others

• orbitofrontal cortex: brain area that responds to a reward based on how it compares to other likely outcomes

• oxytocin: hormone released by posterior pituitary; important for sexual and parental behaviors

• social neuroscience: the study of how genes, chemicals, and brain activity contribute to social behavior

• ventromedial prefrontal cortex: brain area that updates preferences based on recent information and monitors confidence in a decision

Chapter 14

1. Describe the importance of dopamine and the nucleus accumbens in reward and addiction.

   • dopamine is connected to addictive drugs

   • nucleus accumbens is associated with drug addiction bc of its relationship with dopamine

2. Discuss cravings and other explanations for habitual drug use.

3. Describe the role of genetics in substance abuse.

4. Describe genetic and environmental predispositions to alcohol abuse and other drug abuse.

   • sons of alcoholics show less symptoms of intoxication

   • (13th ed.) sons of alcoholics show greater stress relief when drinking

5. Discuss possible treatments.

   • antabuse, makes you feel sick if you drink

   • nalexone blocks opiate receptors, alcohol is no longer pleasurable

6. Describe the symptoms and characteristics of major depression.

   • depressed people have fewer pleasant experiences

7. Discuss the genetic and environmental predispositions toward depression.

   • lots of depressed people have decreased activity in their left prefrontal cortexes

   • those who get depression in their 50s+ tend to have relatives with circulatory problems

8. Describe and evaluate the standard antidepressant drugs and the available alternatives.

   • it is possible to treat depression by altering you sleep schedule

9. Describe bipolar disorder and its treatment.

   • bipolar I disorder: full-fledged manic episodes

   • bipolar II disorder: mild, hypomanic episodes

   • glucose levels in the brain are higher during mania, and drop during depression

   • lithium salts are the common & effective method of treatment

10. List the symptoms of schizophrenia, distinguishing between positive and negative symptoms.

    • “Dissociative identity disorder was formerly called multiple personality disorder, although many people confused it with schizophrenia.”

    • deterioration of daily functioning

    • disordered speech and behavior

11. Describe and evaluate the research on genetic predispositions to schizophrenia.

    • schizophrenia genetics?

      • genetics vary, usually a collection of related conditions

      • doesn’t depend on a single gene

        • few rare genes relate to significan increases in schizo risk via disrupting glutamate synapse development or the immune system

          • one gene changes the genes responsible for surface proteins that the immune system recognizes

          • DISC1 ctrls differentiation & migration of neurons in brain development

        • microdeletions (loss of a small pt of a chromosome) can cause cog dysfunction and schizo symptoms; they greatly increase the probability of schizo

      • MZ twins have a 50% agreement for schizophrenia; greater similarity btw DZ twins than siblings

      • adopted kids with schizo: more common in bio relatives than in adoptive ones

12. Discuss the environmental contributors and the two-hit hypothesis.

    • schizophrenia and decreases in brain matter?

      • grey matter: less than avg in frontal cortex, hippocampus, & oth pts

      • white matter is reduced

      • ventricles (fluid filled spaces in the brain) are enlarged

      • connections btw brain areas are weaker

    • schizophrenia and brain damage in what area that causes deficits in memory and attention?

      • either the temporal or prefrontal cortexes

13. Discuss the treatments for schizophrenia and their limitations.

    • cause for changes in schizophrenia therapy?

      • discovery of antipsychotic drugs allowed for schizophrenic patients to receive treatment without being confined to a mental hospital

        • antipsychotic drugs?

          • phenothiazines — chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (chlorpromazine) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

            • chlorpromazine — antipsychotic drug that relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, though not all, patients

          • butyrophenones — a chem fam th includes antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol) th relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

          • all block dopamine receptors

14. Describe the symptoms of autism, noting the variance among individuals.

    • deficits in social interaction

15. Describe the genetic and environmental contributors.

    • folic acid for pregnant mothers may help prevent autism

    • antibodies th attack certain brain proteins prenatally in about 12% of moms of kids w/ ASD

16. Explain why some children with autism behave more normally when they have a fever.

• ASD treatments?

  • no medial interventions

  • behavioral treatments for social and communication deficits

  • (13th ed.) Risperidone (an antipsychotic drug) can help with stereotyped behavior, though with serious side effects

Key Terms:

• affinity: tendency of a drug to bind to a receptor

• agonist: a drug that mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter

• Antabuse: drug that antagonizes the effects of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase by binding to its copper ion

• antagonist: a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter

• craving: an insistent search for something

• efficacy: a drug’s tendency to activate the receptor

• methadone: drug similar to heroin and morphine that is taken orally

• nucleus accumbens: brain area that is rich in dopamine and is central to the brain’s reinforcement system

• self-stimulation of the brain: behavior that is reinforced by electrical stimulation of a brain area

• tolerance: decreased effect of a drug after repeated use

• withdrawal: effects of drug cessation

• atypical antidepressants: drugs with antidepressant effects that do not fit into any of the other antidepressant categories

• bipolar disorder: a condition that alternates between depression and mania

• deep brain stimulation: use of a battery-powered device implanted into a brain to deliver stimulation to certain areas

• electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a treatment for depression by electrically inducing a seizure

  • common side effect: temporary memory loss

• lithium: element whose salts are often used as therapy for bipolar disorder

• major depression: a condition in which people feel sad and helpless every day for weeks at a time

• mania: a condition characterized by restless activity, excitement, laughter, self-confidence, rambling speech, and loss of inhibitions

• monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): drugs that block the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), a presynaptic terminal enzyme that metabolizes catecholamines and serotonin into inactive forms

• psychedelics: drugs that distort perception

• seasonal affective disorder (SAD): depression that recurs during a particular season, such as winter

  • SAD symptoms in time?

    • reoccurs seasonally, like in winter.

    • prevalent near the poles, longer winter nights

    • have phase-delayed circadian rhythms, mutation of genes th regulate circadian rhythm

  • SAD treatment?

    • bright lights may reset the circadian rhythm

• selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic terminal

• serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine

• tricyclics: antidepressant drugs that block the reuptake of catecholamines and serotonin by presynaptic terminals

• antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs: drugs that tend to relieve schizophrenia and similar conditions

  • block dopamine receptors in the brain

• butyrophenones: a chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

• chlorpromazine: antipsychotic drug that relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, though not all, patients

• concordance: similarity, such as having the same disorder as someone else

• delusions: unjustifiable beliefs

• differential diagnosis: one that rules out other conditions with similar symptoms

• DISC1: (disrupted in schizophrenia 1) gene that controls production of dendritic spines and the generation of new neurons in the hippocampus

• dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: idea that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas

• glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia: proposal that schizophrenia relates in part to deficient activity at glutamate synapses, especially in the prefrontal cortex

• hallucinations: false sensory experiences

• mesolimbocortical system: neurons that project from the midbrain to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex

• microdeletion: deletion of a small part of a chromosome

• negative symptoms: absence of behaviors ordinarily seen in normal people (e.g., lack of emotional expression)

• neurodevelopmental hypothesis: proposal that schizophrenia begins with abnormalities in the prenatal or neonatal development of the nervous system, based on either genetics or other influences

• phenothiazines: a chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (chlorpromazine) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

• positive symptoms: presence of behaviors not seen in normal people

• schizophrenia: a split between the emotional and intellectual aspects of experience

  • dementia praecox was the original name for?

    • schizophrenia, because scientists originally thought it was a progressive disorder

• season-of-birth effect: tendency for people born in winter to have a slightly greater probability of developing schizophrenia than people born at other times of the year

  • hypothesis: viral infections of the pregnant mother during the fall impair brain development of the baby, born either early spring or winter.

• second-generation antipsychotics: drugs that alleviate schizophrenia with less likelihood of movement problem

• substance-induced psychotic disorder: condition similar to schizophrenia, provoked by large, repeated doses of a drug

  • can b caused by the abuse of amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine

• tardive dyskinesia: a movement disorder characterized by tremors and other involuntary movement

• two-hit hypothesis: schizophrenia is the result of a combination of a genetic predisposition and impacts from the environment in prenatal/neonatal development, later in life, or both

• autism spectrum disorder: family of psychological disorders marked by impaired social and emotional exchange and other symptoms

  • asperger’s syndrome is a type of autism

• folic acid: vitamin that is important for development of the nervous system

Practice Final (Attempt 1) - Hard Concepts

Chapter 1

• Na channels?

  • Na, K, Ca, & Cl pass thru gates.

  • At rest, gates are closed & almost no Na passes through, while K has a slightly greater flow

  • When the neuron is at rest, 2 forces push Na into the cell:

    • Na = +, inside the cell = -; attraction (electrical charge gradient

    • Concentration gradient, Na concentration = greater outside, enter the cell quickly once Na channels are closed

  • K = +, inside the cell = -; attraction.

  • Concentration gradient; K concentration = higher inside, forces it out of the cell

• action potentials?

  • messages from axons

  • any depolarization (reducing polarization toward 0 across the membrane; decrease - charge) that reaches/passes the threshold produces one

  • results in opening Na channels, Na flows into the cell, making the internal charge drop rapidly to positive, but the concentration of Na is still greater on the outside of the cell. The Na gates have to close to stop the flow.

• types of glia, waste removal?

  • astrocytes synchronize axon activity and work with microglia to prune synapses & remove waste

• Korsakoff’s?

  • prolonged thiamine deficiency is the cause, commonly due to chronic alcoholism

  • memory impairments

  • (13th ed.) similar to those w/ damg in the prefrontal cortex

Chapter 2

• flexor & extensor muscles, antagonistic?

  • flexor muscles activate in one leg, the extensor muscles contract in the other(s). interneurons also inhibit the extensor muscles in the one leg, and the flexor muscles in the other(s).

• endorphins, similar to?

  • a neuropeptide

  • bind to the same receptors as opiates

  • endogenous morphines

Chapter 3

• olfactory receptors?

  • the olfactory system takes info from the receptors →olfactory bulbs→ directly to cerebral cortex

• somatosensory system?

  • most sensory info goes to the thalamus first, whc sends its processes to the cerebral cortex

• hippocampus?

  • between the thalamus and cerebral cortex, located toward the posterior of the forebrain

  • important for memories (esp individual events)

• CAT scan, what rays/waves?

  • uses x-rays that pass through the head, detecting the dye in the blood

Chapter 4

• fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

  • kids: hyperactivity, impulsiveness, attention deficits, heart defects, facial abnormalities, & sometimes the thinning of the cerebral cortex

  • alcohol kills neurons via apoptosis; it inhibits glutamate receptors (main excitatory transmitter), enhances GABA receptors (main inhibitory transmitter); not enough excitation = apoptosis.

• number of olfactory receptors?

  • olfactory receptors replace themselves all throughout life, unlike other neurons

• stroke causes?

  • cerebrovascular accident — result of interrupted blood flow to the brain resulting fr either a blood clot or ruptured artery

  • more common stroke: ischema; stroke resulting from a blood clot

    • edema (accumulation of fluid) of CSF

  • hemmorhage is a stroke caused by a ruptured artery

    • edema of blood & chems

Chapter 5

• visual neural pathway (order of stimuli communication)?

  • Rods & cones in the retina → horizontal cells & bipolar cells → amacrine cells & ganglion

Chapter 6

• tinnitus?

  • tinnitus — frequent/constant ringing in the ears

  • resembles a phantom limb, losing pt of cochlea = amputation; axons invade the area due to lack of input

• neurotransmitters and pain?

  • mild pain prod glutamate; stronger pain releases both glutamate & neuropeptides (substance P & calcitonin gene-related peptide [CGRP])

• taste buds, location & concentration?

  • taste receptors are inside taste buds, taste buds are in papillae on the surface of the tongue

  • ea taste bud has approx 50 receptor cells

  • taste buds are mainly along the edge of the tongue

  • diff chems activate diff receptors, wch prod diff action potentials

Chapter 8

• zeitgeber?

  • zeitgeber — stimulus th resets the circadian rhythm

• comas and other consciousnesses?

  • coma — an extended period of unconsciousness w/ a low level of brain activity

  • unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (vegetative state) — condition where someone alternates btw sleep and moderate arousal, but shows no awareness of surroundings or purposeful behavior

  • minimally conscious state — condition of decreased brain activity w/ occasional, brief periods of purposeful actions & limited speech comprehension

  • Brain death — condition w/ no sign of brain activity & no response to any stimulus

• cataplexy?

  • one symptom of narcolepsy

  • cataplexy — an attack of muscle weakness while the person remains awake.

• activation-synthesis hypothesis?

  • activation-synthesis hypothesis — idea th a dream represents the brain’s effort to make sense of sparse and distorted information

Chapter 9

• set point?

  • Set point — a value that the body works to maintain

• hypovolemic thirst?

  • hypovolemic thirst — thirst caused by low blood volume; need to restore lost salts in addition to water

    • cells th detect low blood pressure stim posterior pituitary gland to release vasopressin & renin (enzyme), whc leads to the production of angiotensis II (whc constricts blood vessels to compensate for the low blood pressure.

      • vasopressin and blood pressure (constriction or dilation?)

        • vasopressin — (antidiuretic hormone) hormone released by the posterior pituitary; raises blood pressure & enables the kidneys to conserve water

        • raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels, compensates for decreased blood volume

    • cant drink pure water bc it’ll dilute body fluids, lower the solute concentration in the blood even further

Chapter 10

• hormones on external genitals vs reproductive organs?

  • testosterone directs the differentiation of external genitalia, where high levels produce male pattern & low levels produce female pattern. Doesn’t effect internal anatomy.

• hormones and male sexual activity?

  • androgens are essential for male sexual activity, particularly testosterone & have a positive correlation with male sexual arousal

  • decrease in testosterone decreases male sexual activity

    • controlling sex offenders with hormones?

      • anti-androgen drugs can aid sex offenders reduce sexual impulses

• common and effective birth control has what hormones?

  • combination pill contains both estrogen and progesterone

• hormones and parental behavior?

  • vasopressin is important for social behavior; male prairie voles w/ high levels have great sexual fidelity to their mates

    • human males defective vasopressin receptors, less marriage, marital conflicts & threat of divorce

    • Human females defective: less attentive to their kids

• CAH girls in adolescence, magazines?

  • tend to read more sports magazines and fewer style & glamour ones compared to oth girls.

• “True hermaphrodites”?

  • (13th ed.) have some ovarian tissue and some testicular tissue

• homosexuality genetics?

  • MZ twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation

  • there are a few sites where a form of a gene is somewhat common in homo men, but no common gene has more th a small effect

  • male homosexuality and the effects of hormones?

    • homo men and hetero men have same hormone levels; homo and hetero women have same hormone levels

    • mother’s immune system in utero; greater # of bio bros, youngest is most likely to be homo

Chapter 11

• depression & aggression, serotonin?

  • social isolation lowers serotonin turnover (release & resynthesis)

  • low serotonin turnover correlates (weakly) with human aggressive behavior

    • including in those convicted of arson, violent crimes, & violent suicide attempts

    • depression also seems to be higher with those with low serotonin turnover

• key area in learned fears?

  • amygdala = important for modding the startle reflex & learned fears

• anxiety meds?

  • anti-anxiety drugs = anxiolytic drugs

  • most common anxiety medication: benzodiazepines; binds to GABAA Receptor (includes GABA reception & sites that mod its own sensitivity)

    • when benzo’s bind, they bend the receptor so GABA can be easily received

    • directs inhibition in amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain, and more

Chapter 13

• lateralization?

  • lateralization — divisions of labor btw the two brain hemispheres

• split brain L vs R grabbing?

  • those with this can use both hands independently

  • hemisphere perception:

    • Left hand can point to what R Hem perceives, but won’t understand what it is

    • Right hand can point to what L Hem perceives & understand what it is

    • (13th ed.) cant point to what the R hem perceives in its L visual field with the R hand

  • split brain conflict decreases when?

    • less common over time, can cooperate sometimes

    • (13th ed.) hemispheres learn to use smaller connections to avoid conflicts

• Right hemisphere damg results in?

  • inability to understand humor and sarcasm

  • damg to posterior R hem. results in difficulty in spatial relationships and finding where you are.

• nonhuman language?

  • gain info on how to teach language to those who have diff learning it

  • underscores the “ambiguity of our concept of language”

• William’s syndrome?

  • William’s syndrome — condition in whc the person has relatively good language abilities in spite of impairments in oth regards

    • have diff with attention, numbers, visuomotor skills (copying a drawing), & spatial perception

    • have better language than expected, awkward grammar, like a second language.

• fluent vs nonfluent aphasia?

  • nonfluent aphasia/Broca’s aphasia impairs language production in all uses, including sign language & gestures; they speak nonfluent-ly

    • lesion in L frontal cortex (Broca’s area)

    • meaningful but sparse language; omit pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, helping verbs, quantifiers, & tense & # endings in english

    • understands most speech, except when dependent on the stuff they omit

  • fluent aphasia/Wernicke’s aphasia impairs language comprehension or recalling the names of objects; they speak fluently

    • near auditory cortex (Wernicke’s area), into the thalamus & basal ganglia

• dyslexia?

  • Dyslexia — spcfc impairment of reading in someone w/ adequate vision, adequate motivation, and adequate overall cognitive skills

  • common in English bc of all the irregular spellings of words

• spatial neglect, damg to what area?

  • spatial neglect — tendency to ignore the L side of the body/L side of objects

  • caused by damg to the right hemisphere

• lose consciousness, order of brain area activation?

  • loss of consciousness: decreased activity as a whole, decreased dopamine input to pt of the cortex, & decreased connectivity btw the thalamus & cortex

  • recovery: increased connectivity btw subcortical and cortical areas, then increased activity in the cortex.

Chapter 14

• SAD symptoms in time?

  • reoccurs seasonally, like in winter.

  • prevalent near the poles, longer winter nights

  • have phase-delayed circadian rhythms, mutation of genes th regulate circadian rhythm

• schizophrenia genetics?

  • genetics vary, usually a collection of related conditions

  • doesn’t depend on a single gene

    • few rare genes relate to significan increases in schizo risk via disrupting glutamate synapse development or the immune system

      • one gene changes the genes responsible for surface proteins that the immune system recognizes

      • DISC1 ctrls differentiation & migration of neurons in brain development

    • microdeletions (loss of a small pt of a chromosome) can cause cog dysfunction and schizo symptoms; they greatly increase the probability of schizo

  • MZ twins have a 50% agreement for schizophrenia; greater similarity btw DZ twins than siblings

  • adopted kids with schizo: more common in bio relatives than in adoptive ones

• schizophrenia and decreases in brain matter?

  • grey matter: less than avg in frontal cortex, hippocampus, & oth pts

  • white matter is reduced

  • ventricles (fluid filled spaces in the brain) are enlarged

  • connections btw brain areas are weaker

• cause for changes in schizophrenia therapy?

  • discovery of antipsychotic drugs allowed for schizophrenic patients to receive treatment without being confined to a mental hospital

    • antipsychotic drugs?

      • phenothiazines — chemical family that includes antipsychotic drugs (chlorpromazine) that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

        • chlorpromazine — antipsychotic drug that relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, though not all, patients

      • butyrophenones — a chem fam th includes antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol) th relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

      • all block dopamine receptors

• ASD treatments?

  • no medial interventions

  • behavioral treatments for social and communication deficits

  • (13th ed.) Risperidone (an antipsychotic drug) can help with stereotyped behavior, though with serious side effects

Practice Final (Attempt 2) - Hard Concepts