Byzantium from the 17th to mid-19th Century: The Rise of Islam & the Reaction of Iconoclasm

Byzantium = noun Byzantine = adjective

The 7th Century

Reigning Order

Phokas 602-610

• Emperor Phokas' reign was marked by military struggles and internal strife, which ultimately weakened Byzantine authority and opened the door for the rise of Islam in subsequent centuries.

Heraklios 610-641

• Heraklios' ascension to the throne marked a significant turning point, as he implemented military reforms and expanded the empire's territories, focusing on the defense against Persian and Islamic incursions.

Constantine III 641

• Constantine III (641): His brief reign was characterized by the ongoing conflicts with the Muslim armies, which began to challenge Byzantine control over the eastern provinces, leading to significant territorial losses.

Heraklonas 641

• Heraklonas (641): His rule faced continued instability due to the external pressures from the advancing Islamic forces, which further complicated the already precarious situation of the empire and resulted in diminished authority.

Constans II 641-668

• Constans II (641-668): His reign was marked by attempts to consolidate power amidst the Islamic conquests, as he sought to reorganize the military and administrative structures to better respond to the threats, while also facing internal dissent and the challenges of maintaining unity within the empire.

Constantine IV 668

• Known for his military campaigns against the Islamic forces, Constantine IV successfully defended the empire during the Siege of Constantinople in 674-678, which ultimately led to a temporary stabilization of the eastern front and allowed for a brief resurgence in Byzantine power.

Justinian II 685-695

• His controversial rule included efforts to restore the empire's former glory, but he faced significant opposition, leading to his eventual overthrow. After a brief exile, he returned to power in 705, implementing harsh measures against his enemies and seeking to strengthen the empire's defenses against ongoing Islamic incursions.

Leontios 695-798

• His reign was marked by internal strife and external threats, as Leontios struggled to maintain control over the increasingly fragmented empire while dealing with the growing power of Islamic states. Despite his efforts to rally support and fortify key positions, his leadership ultimately proved insufficient against the relentless pressure from the Islamic forces, leading to further challenges for Byzantium.

Tiberios II 798-705

• Tiberios II faced numerous challenges during his rule, including economic difficulties and military setbacks, which weakened the empire's position. He attempted to negotiate peace with Islamic leaders, but these efforts were often met with skepticism and hostility, further complicating the empire's diplomatic landscape.

Justinian II 705-711

• Justinian II's reign was characterized by his attempts to restore the glory of the Byzantine Empire, yet he faced significant obstacles, including a divided nobility and ongoing military defeats against Islamic incursions. His controversial policies and harsh measures led to discontent among the populace, resulting in his eventual overthrow and further destabilization of the empire.

Philippikos 711-713

• Philippikos sought to consolidate power and regain lost territories, but his reign was short-lived due to internal dissent and external pressures from Islamic forces, ultimately leading to his deposition and the continuation of the empire's struggles against its adversaries.

Anastasios II 713-715

• Anastasios II aimed to strengthen the empire's defenses and improve relations with the church, yet his efforts were undermined by the ongoing religious conflicts and the relentless advances of Muslim armies, which exacerbated tensions within the empire and hindered any meaningful recovery.

Theodosios III 715-717

• Theodosios III, facing significant challenges, attempted to rally support from both the military and the populace, but his inability to effectively counter the Muslim incursions led to his eventual downfall and the ascension of Leo III, who would become a pivotal figure in the empire's defense.

Leo III 717-741

• Leo III implemented a series of military reforms and established a robust defense strategy that not only repelled the Muslim forces but also revitalized the empire's economy and morale, marking a turning point in Byzantine history.

• Dark Age

• Persians take Antioch in 613, Jerusalem in 614, occupy Byzantium Syria and Egypt; push across Anatolia; besiege CP with Avars in 626

• Hera

• Slavs continue to settle in Balkans, Greece; pushed by Avars then by Bulgars: across Danube in 680s, and now part of Byzantine politics

• Lombards control most of N. Italy

The rise of islam and its impact on Byzantium

• The coming of the Arabs and Islam

  • not only religion but politics and economics

  • not only a conflict but much cultural fusion

• Prophet Muhammad builds his community at Mecca, Medina in 620’s then Mecca again from 630

• By his death in 623, controls most of Arabian peninsula and has confronted Byzantine military and allies in region

• 1st siege of Constantinople 674-678

  • This period marks the beginning of significant territorial and ideological challenges for Byzantium, as the Islamic expansion began to reshape the political landscape.

• North Africa by 700

• 2nd siege of Constantinople 717-718

  • During this time, the Umayyad Caliphate expanded its influence, capturing North Africa by 700, which further intensified the pressure on Byzantine territories and prompted a series of defensive strategies.

  • 2nd Siege of Constantinople (717-718) - This pivotal event showcased the resilience of the Byzantine Empire, as the city's fortifications and innovative defense tactics ultimately repelled the Umayyad forces, marking a turning point in the struggle between the two empires.

• ABBASID Caliphate from 750

  • The Abbasid Caliphate, which emerged in 750, shifted the center of Islamic power from Damascus to Baghdad, leading to a flourishing of culture and science that would further challenge Byzantine dominance in the region.

• Crete, Sicily, Part of S. Italy 820s-830s

  • Crete, Sicily, and parts of Southern Italy faced significant conflicts during the 820s-830s, as Byzantine forces attempted to reclaim territories lost to the expanding Islamic powers, resulting in a series of military campaigns that highlighted the ongoing struggle for control in the Mediterranean.

How did this Happen?

• Monophysitism as expression of dissent; stress on divine oneness

  • led to increasing tensions within the empire, as various factions sought to assert their theological beliefs and political power, ultimately contributing to the fragmentation of Byzantine authority and the rise of regional powers that would challenge traditional Byzantine hegemony.

• New Muslim rule preferable to CP

  • preferable because it offered a degree of stability and protection for certain communities, allowing for a more pragmatic approach to governance that contrasted sharply with the internal strife and iconoclastic controversies that plagued the empire.

• East a war zone; urban culture under threat; Byzantine weakness

  • The emergence of new Muslim rule was often viewed as preferable to the constant strife within the capital, as the East became a war zone and the urban culture that had flourished under Byzantine influence faced significant threats, further highlighting the empire's growing weakness.

• Taxed to death with nothing to show; better off under new regime

  • This shift in power dynamics also encouraged a reevaluation of alliances, as communities adapted to the changing political landscape, often finding themselves caught between the demands of their new rulers and the remnants of Byzantine governance.

  • victims of imperial ambitions and local conflicts, many citizens struggled to maintain their cultural identity while navigating the complexities of their new reality.

• Cease to identify with Byzantine World

  • As a result, a growing number of individuals began to embrace the emerging Islamic culture, which offered a sense of belonging and stability, further distancing themselves from their Byzantine heritage.

Effect on Byzantium of loss of East:

• Society and religion are refashioned

  • Traditional practices and beliefs were challenged, leading to a re-evaluation of religious icons and their significance in daily life, resulting in a period of intense iconoclasm that sought to redefine spiritual identity.

• New geopolitical, cultural homogeneity

  • as the influence of Islamic culture began to permeate the region, prompting a complex interplay between existing Christian traditions and the rising Islamic norms.

• New ideology, social and economic pattern

  • reshaping the societal landscape and fostering both conflict and collaboration among diverse communities.

• Major political restructuring: central power dominates perpheries, renewed autocracy

  • This shift resulted in the emergence of new governance structures, where local leaders often found themselves navigating the delicate balance between allegiance to the central authority and the needs of their own communities.

• Massive economic, military and social restructuring: establishment of “theme system” (themata) to support citizen military

• A very different Byzantium emerges

• Family clan replaced by nuclear family…

• Collapse of urban centres/society: emergence of kastron (garrison/fortress) in place of polis (ancient city state)

• Issues reflected in typical Byzantine religious idiom — major religious reaction in form of iconoclams (the banning of icons in worship

Byzantium in the 8th and 9th Centuries

• 717: Leo III takes power out of chaos

• Thwarts 2nd Arab siege of CP

• Hangs on as emperor until he dies in 741

• Leo stabilizes empire

• Resists internal and external threats

• Completes reorganization of military and administration on theme system

• “Stable” 80yr period under “Isaurians” permits development of ‘new’ Byzantium

• Poor, biased sources

• Traditionally seen as period of ICONOCLASM (from Greek words for ‘image’ and ‘to break’)

  • very popular with many people

  • provoked resistance and individuality

  • This movement challenged established religious practices and led to a significant transformation in the cultural landscape, as communities grappled with the implications of rejecting images in worship.

• Ultimate winners hate iconoclasts: Leo becomes ‘the Beast’, Constantine V ‘called shit’

  • But there are BIG problems with seeing it in these terms…

• Haldon “…it has been assumed that the sources describing mass persecution … as well as destruction of icons were more-or-less accurate accounts. in fact it seems that [the sources] have invented much of their story and exaggerated the rest”

• The period from the early 8th C to the mid-9th C is better seen as time when B was re-created and stabilized

• Eriene and Constantine VI

  • were pivotal figures in this transformation, as their reigns marked a shift towards a more centralized and unified Byzantine identity that sought to reconcile religious differences and assert imperial authority.

• Restoration of icons under Eirene in 787

  • This restoration was a significant event that not only reaffirmed the veneration of icons but also solidified the position of the church within the empire, ultimately influencing the cultural and spiritual landscape of Byzantium.

• Years of dissent and revolt follow

• Powerful neighbours in Bulgaria, East (Harun al-Rashid), and W (Charlemagne)

  • These external pressures, coupled with internal strife, led to a series of challenges for the Byzantine Empire as it struggled to maintain its influence and cohesion amidst the rising power of Islam and the growing threats from Western Europe.

• Nikephoros ousts Eirene in 802; killed in battle against Krum of Bulgaria in 811

  • The subsequent power struggles and territorial conflicts during this period further exacerbated tensions, leading to a complex interplay between religious authority and political ambition, as various factions sought to assert their dominance over the region.

• Eventually replaced by Leo V ‘the Armenian’

  • initiated a controversial policy of iconoclasm, aiming to suppress the veneration of icons and reshape the religious landscape in favor of a more austere interpretation of Christianity. This shift not only intensified the divisions within the empire but also sparked significant opposition from those who viewed icons as vital to their faith.

• Restores iconoclasms in 815

• Michael II outsts Leo V in 820, son Theophilos rules to 842

  • In 842, Theophilos was succeeded by his widow, Empress Theodora, who ultimately restored the veneration of icons, marking a pivotal moment in the Byzantine religious landscape and leading to the eventual resolution of the iconoclastic controversy.

• Rebellion of Thomas the Slav 821-823

• Muslims control Mediterranean

• 842, regency council of Empress Theodora

• Final restoration of icons in 843 under Empress Theodora

• Mission of Cyril and Methodius to Slavs of Moravia (860s)

In a Nutshell

• Dismemberment of old E Roman empire

• A new social pattern replaces the old urban culture

• More homogenous and thoroughly Christian, but deeply divided over icons

• Survives constant external pressure and slowly strengthens again

Icons and Iconoclasm

Icons

• Religion avoided using visual representations

• Early Christian art was very neutral or secretive

• As time passes, crosses and relics became more prominent in worship, reflecting a gradual shift towards more overt expressions of faith.

• Symeon Stylites

  • exemplified this transition, as he ascended a pillar to dedicate his life to prayer and contemplation, becoming a living icon of piety and devotion that inspired followers.

  • ‘apotropeia’ refers to the use of religious icons and symbols as protective devices against evil, further emphasizing the growing importance of visual expressions in the spiritual life of Byzantium during this period.

• private devotion and inclusion of religious art in homes resembles the practices of the early Christian community, where personal spaces became sanctuaries adorned with icons that served both as focal points for worship and as reminders of the divine presence.

• Images come to be perceived as possessing power in themselves

• As able to channel power to other things

• The idea develops that simple prayer and ritual before an icon can accomplish miracles

• Icons have started to be used as apotropeia for armies and cities

• Where did the cult of icons come from?

  1. Relics

     • the veneration of icons can be traced back to early Christian practices, where relics of saints and martyrs were revered as a means of connecting with the divine.

  2. Traditional polytheist religious practice

     • the use of images and symbols in worship was common, influencing early Christian communities to adopt similar practices.

  3. The imperial cult

     • The rise of Islam in the 7th century further complicated the landscape of religious iconography, as Islamic teachings discouraged the use of images in worship, leading to significant theological debates within the Byzantine Empire.

Why did images become such an issue?

• Byzantium reinvents itself in period of crisis

• Reaction to perceived divine displeasure

• Eastern traditions avoid representation of human form… success of Islam

• Unity imperative in ‘new’ Byzantine world

• Unified central authority becomes all important

• Old intermediaries now gone or seen as dangerous

• Icons represent old, independent, ‘dangerous’ system