New Recording 53

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning: Passive social learning; involves observing relationships between stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning: Active process; behavior is influenced by reinforcement or punishment.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior occurring again; can be positive or negative.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Something added to situation increases behavior (e.g., praise for homework submission).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Something removed from situation increases behavior (e.g., headache relief by taking aspirin).

• Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior occurring again; can also be positive or negative.

  • Positive Punishment: Something added to decrease behavior (e.g., pain from touching a stove).

  • Negative Punishment: Something removed to decrease behavior (e.g., loss of phone privileges for staying out late).

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing, do not require learning (e.g., food, water, affection).

• Secondary Reinforcers: Gain reinforcing properties through associations with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio Schedules: Based on number of behaviors.

  • Fixed Ratio: Set number of behaviors before reinforcement (e.g., every 5 responses).

  • Variable Ratio: Average number of behaviors before reinforcement, unpredictable (e.g., slot machines).

• Interval Schedules: Based on time intervals.

  • Fixed Interval: Set amount of time before reinforcement (e.g., weekly paychecks).

  • Variable Interval: Varying time intervals before reinforcement, unpredictable (e.g., fishing).

Shaping

• Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

  • Example: Training a dog to shake hands by rewarding various approaches to the final behavior (e.g., pawing gesture).

Clicker Training

• Definition: Method of using a clicker to reinforce desired behavior in animals.

• Sound of the clicker becomes associated with a reward, conditioning the animal to respond to the clicker as reinforcement.

Random Reinforcement Effects

• Random reinforcement can lead to unintended associations, sometimes resulting in superstitious behavior.

• Example: Skinner's pigeons developed superstitious habits by linking random behaviors to food rewards, showing that they associate actions with reinforcement without a direct link.

Observational Learning

• Definition: Learning that occurs by observing and imitating others, offering a way to learn without direct experience.

• Components of Observational Learning:

  • Attention: Noticing the behavior to learn from it.

  • Retention: Remembering observed behaviors for later use.

  • Reproduction: Having the skills to imitate the learned behavior.

  • Motivation: Desire to engage in the observed behavior based on perceived value or outcomes.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

• Explored the effects of aggression observed in adults on children's behavior.

• Children who observed aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively themselves.

Vicarious Learning Factors

• Reinforcement and punishment can affect the likelihood of someone engaging in a behavior based on what they observe happens to others.

• Characteristics of the model (e.g., gender, social status) influence the likelihood of imitation.

Cultural Influence on Fear Learning

• Observational learning can influence learned fears and preferences, as shown in studies using primates responding to threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes).

Implications of Observational Learning

• Can lead to prosocial behaviors (e.g., kindness) or antisocial behaviors (e.g., aggression) based on observed behaviors.

• Nonverbal behaviors can influence attitudes and perceptions of others, as seen in studies analyzing reactions to media portrayals of individuals.

The Role of Media in Learning

• Media representations can shape social attitudes and biases.

• Research shows that people can develop biases based on how characters are portrayed in media and how they are treated by others.