New Recording 53

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: Passive social learning; involves observing relationships between stimuli.
Operant Conditioning: Active process; behavior is influenced by reinforcement or punishment.

Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior occurring again; can be positive or negative.
- Positive Reinforcement: Something added to situation increases behavior (e.g., praise for homework submission).
- Negative Reinforcement: Something removed from situation increases behavior (e.g., headache relief by taking aspirin).
Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior occurring again; can also be positive or negative.
- Positive Punishment: Something added to decrease behavior (e.g., pain from touching a stove).
- Negative Punishment: Something removed to decrease behavior (e.g., loss of phone privileges for staying out late).

Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing, do not require learning (e.g., food, water, affection).
Secondary Reinforcers: Gain reinforcing properties through associations with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

Ratio Schedules: Based on number of behaviors.
- Fixed Ratio: Set number of behaviors before reinforcement (e.g., every 5 responses).
- Variable Ratio: Average number of behaviors before reinforcement, unpredictable (e.g., slot machines).
Interval Schedules: Based on time intervals.
- Fixed Interval: Set amount of time before reinforcement (e.g., weekly paychecks).
- Variable Interval: Varying time intervals before reinforcement, unpredictable (e.g., fishing).

Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.
- Example: Training a dog to shake hands by rewarding various approaches to the final behavior (e.g., pawing gesture).

Definition: Method of using a clicker to reinforce desired behavior in animals.
Sound of the clicker becomes associated with a reward, conditioning the animal to respond to the clicker as reinforcement.

Random reinforcement can lead to unintended associations, sometimes resulting in superstitious behavior.
Example: Skinner's pigeons developed superstitious habits by linking random behaviors to food rewards, showing that they associate actions with reinforcement without a direct link.

Definition: Learning that occurs by observing and imitating others, offering a way to learn without direct experience.
Components of Observational Learning:
- Attention: Noticing the behavior to learn from it.
- Retention: Remembering observed behaviors for later use.
- Reproduction: Having the skills to imitate the learned behavior.
- Motivation: Desire to engage in the observed behavior based on perceived value or outcomes.

Explored the effects of aggression observed in adults on children's behavior.
Children who observed aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively themselves.

Reinforcement and punishment can affect the likelihood of someone engaging in a behavior based on what they observe happens to others.
Characteristics of the model (e.g., gender, social status) influence the likelihood of imitation.

Observational learning can influence learned fears and preferences, as shown in studies using primates responding to threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes).

Can lead to prosocial behaviors (e.g., kindness) or antisocial behaviors (e.g., aggression) based on observed behaviors.
Nonverbal behaviors can influence attitudes and perceptions of others, as seen in studies analyzing reactions to media portrayals of individuals.

Media representations can shape social attitudes and biases.
Research shows that people can develop biases based on how characters are portrayed in media and how they are treated by others.