Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (CC)

• Came from Pavlov’s Dogs

• Type of learning — associative learning

• Wherein a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits that response

• Process of prediction

• If something can learn that one stimulus reliably predicts another stimulus then it can better prepare by initiating the natural response a little earlier

Pavlov’s Dogs

• Pavlov observed that the animals salivated even before the food was presenting, often in response to cue like the sound of the lab assistant’s footsteps

• He paired a neutral stimulus — a bell — with the presentation of food

• After several repetitions, the dogs salivated in response to the bell alone

Important Concepts

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response (food)

Unconditioned Response (UR): A reflexive, natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation to food)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with the US, comes to elicit the same response on its own

Conditioned Response (CR): the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus

Acquisition: The phase in which the neutral stimulus (which becomes the CS) is repeatedly paired with the US until the CR is established

Extinction: After acquisition, the CS will elicit the CR even without the presentation of the US. But, after a while, if the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the response will decrease and may eventually disappear.

Spontaneous Recovery: A previously extinguished CR can unexpectedly reappear

Stimulus Generalisation: Stimuli similar to the CS may also elicit the CR

Clinical Relevance

• CC helps explain how phobias and certain anxiety disorders can form with a neutral event becomes associated with fear or distress

• Principles of association, extinction, and stimulus generalisation remain central to many therapeutic interventions and how our learning shapes behaviour

Operant Conditioning (OP)

• Wherein behaviours are modified by the consequences that follow them

• Unlike CC, OP centres on the idea that behaviours are strengthen or weakened based on the rewards or punishments they produce

Skinner’s Box

• Skinner developed an apparatus know as ‘Skinner Box’

• An animal, often rat or pigeon, was placed in a controlled environment equipped with a lever

• When the animal pressed the lever, a food pellet was delivered as a reward

• Over time, the animal learned to press the lever to obtain food, demonstrating that behaviour can be shaped by its consequences

Important Concepts

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus following a behaviour, which increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour, also increasing the probability of the behaviour being repeated

Positive Punishment: Introducing an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour

Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus decrease the likelihood of a behaviour

Extinction: The gradual reduction of a behaviour when it is no longer reinforced

Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour until tру target behaviour is achieved

Schedules of Reinforcement: Patterns that determine how and when reinforcement is delivered (continuous reinforcement vs intermittent reinforcement)

Clinical Relevance

• Principles are employed in behaviour modification therapies to encourage adaptive behaviours and reduce maladaptive ones

• Techniques such as token economies, contingency management, and systematic behaviour modification programs are rooted in OC

• Successfully applied to treat behavioural problems in children and conditions like ADHD, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders.