James, C., Este, D., and Bernard, W. T (2010) (4, Racism-related stress)

Core Concepts of Racism

1. Manifestations of Racism:

   • Racism takes many forms, from overt acts (e.g., name-calling) to subtle patterns (e.g., exclusion).

   • Participants’ lived experiences reflect racism as a system of unequal treatment based on skin color.

   • Racism is often described as a tool of power that excludes people of color from equal rights and opportunities.

2. Personal Impact:

   • Racism strips individuals of dignity and self-worth, leading to feelings of degradation and alienation.

   • The pressure to assimilate into dominant white society often results in stress, identity suppression, and internalized racism.

3. Systemic Racism:

   • Racism reflects larger patterns of societal domination and is deeply embedded in institutions like policing, education, and employment.

   • Participants linked racism-related stress to concepts like exoticization, dehumanization, marginalization, and alienation.

Key Forms of Racism

1. Exoticization Racism:

   • Perpetuating "otherness" through questions like "Where are you really from?"

   • Stereotyping based on race or ethnicity.

   • Black Canadians feel excluded from the identity of being truly "Canadian."

2. Dehumanization Racism:

   • Acute acts of exclusion, such as being ignored in public or treated as invisible.

   • Discrimination in housing, employment, and education leads to feelings of humiliation.

   • Children face long-term effects from being targeted for their appearance or behavior.

3. Marginalization Racism:

   • Being treated as inferior, having ideas dismissed, or being excluded from conversations and opportunities.

   • Higher education does not shield Black professionals from racism; it can amplify stress due to heightened awareness.

4. Alienation Racism:

   • Immigrants and their children feel like outsiders, facing both societal and systemic exclusion.

   • Economic, social, and psychological stress contributes to feelings of being second-class citizens.

Psychological and Social Impacts

1. Identity and Coping Mechanisms:

   • Participants spoke of "wearing masks" to cope with the mental stress of racism.

   • Racism fosters a constant state of anxiety, paranoia, and self-doubt.

2. Internalized Racism:

   • Many participants internalize societal limits, losing hope and interest in life.

   • Some overcompensate by adopting behaviors to counter stereotypes, while others succumb to them.

3. Stress from Stereotypes:

   • The stereotype of the "threatening Black man" forces individuals to modify their behavior to appear non-threatening.

   • Fear and racial profiling create ongoing mental and emotional strain.

4. Generational Differences:

   • Canadian-born children of immigrants report higher levels of alienation than their parents.

   • The struggle for integration often clashes with cultural and family values.

Theoretical Perspectives

1. Critical Race Theory:

   • Racism is not an isolated phenomenon but part of a larger structure of white domination in society.

   • Everyday experiences reflect systemic and institutional discrimination.

2. Acculturative Stress:

   • Immigrants face stress related to economic hardship, social exclusion, and cultural adaptation.

   • Existing theories often fail to account for the compounded challenges faced by racialized minorities.

3. Intersection of Identity and Systemic Barriers:

   • Structural exclusion contradicts Canada’s merit-based ideals.

   • Black professionals face unique pressures as they represent their communities.

Strategies for Change

1. Recognizing Racism:

   • Awareness of its overt and covert forms is critical to addressing systemic inequalities.

   • Emphasizing personal narratives helps dismantle myths of a post-racial society.

2. Advocacy and Support:

   • Promote equitable access to housing, education, and employment opportunities.

   • Challenge institutional racism in schools, policing, and healthcare.

3. Building Resilience:

   • Encourage open dialogues about race and identity.

   • Support mental health resources tailored to the needs of racialized .communities